AGGRESSION
What Is Aggression? (handout/exercise)
Aggression Defined:
This is any form of behavior that is intended to harm or injure some person, oneself, or an object.
Instrumental vs. Hostile Aggression
IA: This is the intentional use of harmful behavior so that one can achieve some other goal
HA: This is the intentional use of harmful behavior, where the goal is simply to cause injury or death to the victim.
Theoretical perspectives
• Instinct perspectives
• Biological theories
• Drive theories
• Social learning theory
• Cognitive theories
1-Instinct Perspectives
People, like animals, possess an innate aggressive instinct.
Aggression is part of human nature
Freud held that aggression stems from a forceful death wish or instinct
Initially aimed at self destruction
But, to survive, is redirected outwardly
Was greatly influenced by witnessing the annihilation of the Jews in WWII
Lorenz proposed that aggression stems from a fighting instinct
Developed during the course of evolution because it promoted survival of the species
Spread the population over a wide area
Helped assure that only the strongest would pass genes on to future generations
Modern instinct theory: Sociobiology assumes that aggression increases the likelihood that an individual will survive and successfully reproduce. (Go to Psy 1010 web links)
Most social psychologists are critical of instinct theory
Levels of at least some forms of aggression vary greatly among various societies (Tasaday vs. Yanamano Indians)
Such huge differences in behavior indicate that aggressive behavior is greatly influenced by cultural and social factors
Nonetheless, remember how you feel when encroached upon by a nonrelated member of human species. Ever feel incredibly rageful? Or how would you react if someone tried to "harm" a relative?
2-Biological theories
Growing body of evidence indicates that biological factors predispose some individuals toward aggression
Amygdala & electrical stimulation
Brain damage
Attempted suicides and persons institutionalized because of extremely high levels of aggression had lower levels of serotonin than normal healthy controls
Female transsexuals receiving large doses of testosterone report higher levels of anger and aggression during treatment
None of the studies show that aggressive tendencies are inherited in a direct way or that biological factors are the most important determinants of aggressive behavior
3-Social learning theory (Bandura)
Instrumentally aggressive behaviors are learned through direct experience or through observation
We learn not only how to behave aggressively, but who are appropriate targets, what behaviors "justify" aggressive retaliation, and in what situations aggression is appropriate
Direct reinforcement: If aggression is rewarded, aggressive response is strengthened. What if aggression punished? Does it decrease?
Observational learning: Bobo doll experiment. Study the experiment.
Short-term laboratory experiments:
Even young children can acquire new ways of aggressing from watching media violence (e.g., Geen, 1991)
4-Cognitive theories
Aggression comes from a complex interplay among cognitive factors -- scripts, attributions, affective states (moods) and other factors--e.g., memories
Studies on direct provocation:
Actions by others may trigger aggression. ONLY IF they are perceived to stem from malicious intent. We tend NOT to "turn the other cheek" in this case.
What provokes us?
Harris (1993) found both male and females find physical and verbal aggression most anger provoking
But females are much more likely than males to be provoked by condescension and insensitivity
Males provoked by casting aspersions on their sexuality; incompetence; physical threats
Studies on hostile attributional bias:
Dodge et al. (1986) found that the greater the tendency of boys to attribute hostile intentions to others, the greater their tendency to engage in aggression while playing with other children
Studies of adolescents also show that the tendency to perceive malice in the action of others is closely related to high levels of aggression
Not everyone has been able to replicate, however
5-Drive theories
Suggest that aggression comes from external conditions that arouse the motive to harm others
Hostile Aggression & The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:
F-A hyp. first developed by a group of social psychologists in 1939. It states that frustration causes aggression and that catharsis is the reduction in the aggressive drive following an aggressive act.
Frustration (interference with goal-directed behavior) arouses a drive whose primary goal is that of harming a person or object--usually the perceived cause of the frustration (coke machine)
Early tests of the theory were mostly successful, but....
Criticisms:
frustration does not always lead to aggression nor is
aggression always the result of frustration.
frustration only leads to aggression when it is seen as intentionally meant to thwart the person.
Catharsis: We all like to believe that catharsis (a drive) works, but it does not. I'll get to this later.
Berkowitz' recent rendition of a "kind" of drive theory
A revised frustration-aggression hypothesis states that frustration is just one of the many factors that can stimulate negative affect.
Berkowitz (1989) proposed a revision that incorporates both cognitive and affective factors. (study him!)
Frustration is an aversive experience, and it leads to aggression because it is unpleasant & arousing
Frustration sometimes leads to aggression because of a basic relationship between negative affect and aggressive behavior
Does so most when the frustrating event is perceived as maliciously intended
This helps explain why unexpected and/or illegitimate or unjustified frustration tends to produce stronger aggression
Presumably it produces more negative affect than frustration that is expected or viewed as justified
Other Factors Involved in or Theories of Aggression:
Temperature and Aggression
Hot weather can put people in bad moods, and these moods can make them more likely to respond to frustration with aggression. Study Affect-Arousal models. Know differences.
Excitation Transfer Theory of Aggression
Zillmann (1988)
Arousal produced in one situation can persist and intensify emotional reactions
occurring in later situations (exercise study)
These effects are most likely to occur when person is unaware of the presence of the residual arousal or when persons recognize their residual arousal, but attribute it to the present situation
Zillmann (1994)
Expanded 1988 theory to incorporate interaction between cognition and emotion
Cognitions can lead us to reappraise various emotion-arousing events which may influence our emotional reactions
Arousal can influence our thoughts, producing a cognitive deficit--a reduced ability to plan rationally or evaluate the outcomes of our behavior
Example: Sexual arousal
Relatively mild levels of sexual arousal can reduce aggression
Exposure to more arousing sexual materials can increase aggression
Zillmann (1984) proposes a two- component model:
Exposure to erotic stimuli
increases arousal
influences current affective states
Mild erotic materials produce weak levels of arousal but high levels of positive affect--tending to reduce overt aggression
Very explicit sexual materials produce stronger arousal and negative affect (because many people find some of the acts shown to be disturbing)--tending to increase overt aggression
Aggressive Cues as "Triggers" of Aggression
Presence of aggression-associated cues in the environment act as triggers for hostile outbursts (e.g., weapons). Study Berkowitz.
Alcohol and Aggression
The research has found a strong correlation between alcohol intoxication and a
host of different types of aggression, including domestic abuse, assault, rape, and homicide. Think of recent hate crimes.
Television Violence and Observational Learning
Experimental and field studies of media violence indicate a clear relationship between viewing aggressive models on television or film and increases aggressive behavior in children.
Longitudinal studies of media violence suggest that
the frequency of viewing televised violence does seem to contribute to later aggressive behavior.
Cross-cultural research on media violence indicates relatively stable results across cultures.
The Contagion of Violence: Copycat Aggression
It appears that news reports sometimes are sufficient catalysts to promote disturbed individuals to commit an act they had been contemplating but had not yet acted on.
Why Does Exposure to Media Violence Affect Behavior?
Disinhibition suggests that viewing the violence of others reduces people's inhibitions against engaging in similar actions.
The formation of aggressive scripts is a guide for behavior and problem solving that is developed and stored in memory and is characterized by aggression.
Cognitive priming: Aggressive cues in television and films can prime a host of aggressive ideas and violent actions may trigger aggressive actions.
Sexual Aggression, Pornography and Sexual Assault
What is pornography? The combination of sexual material along with abuse or degradation in a manner that appears to endorse, condone, or encourage such behavior.
The rape myth is a false belief--that deep down, women enjoy forcible sex and find it sexually exciting.
Aggressive behavior research indicated that when men watch a mixture of sex and violence they tend not to only underestimate the seriousness of rape,
they also are more likely to justify sexual aggression
have reduced inhibitions about engaging in aggressive behaviors.
Desensitizing and conditioning violence is often motivated for the wrong reasons (MONEY).
Ethical issues in conducting pornography research include the problem of men who see films or read of women being sexually assaulted (shades of observational learning) learning that rape is not harmful.
Sexual Scripts and Acquaintance Rape
Acquaintance rape is forced sexual intercourse that occurs either on a date or between people who are acquainted or romantically involved.
The female resistant role must be consistent; she must mean "no" when she says "no".
The male predator role research indicates that the predator believes that women like a little force to enjoy sex; he does not view acquaintance rape as rape.
Jealousy and Aggression
Research indicates that what often results is an increasing escalation of physical and psychological abuse.
Applications: Reducing Aggression
Punishment is not enough.
May reduce aggressive behavior under certain circumstances. When, do you think?
It does not teach the aggressor new prosocial forms of behavior; punishment also serves as a model for aggressive behavior.
Social Modeling:
Do as I do. Teaches by example.
Research suggests that both aggression and nonaggression can be learned through social modeling.
Inducing Incompatible Responses:
Will not be aggressive when you are feeling responses inconsistent with aggression
Humor, mild sexual arousal, feelings of empathy have all been effective in reducing overt aggression
Cognitive Interventions:
People can presumably control their aggressiveness by thinking that they should not or will not aggress
Example: Asking kids to state why it is bad to imitate television violence
Example: Having children think about how their aggressive behavior hurts another.
Ethnic or Cultural Differences in Aggressiveness
Ostermann et al. (1994); 8-year-old children's self-reports or peer ratings
Aggressive in this order:
African American children (from Chicago inner city) most aggressive, then Caucasian American, Polish, and Finnish children. Why?
Gender Differences
Are men more aggressive than women? This is the stereotype, from early age onwards.
Males may be more aggressive with no provocation. But, when provoked, differences are minimal
Physical aggression more prevalent in males. Verbal or indirect more prevalent in females.
How to explain gender differences?
Social role interpretation? (Eagly et al.)
Biological factors (e.g., testosterone). Correlational research.
Aggressiveness in Communication
Aggressiveness in communication is a style in which individuals express their feelings and opinions and/or advocate for their needs and rights in a way that violates the rights of others.
Aggressive communicators are often verbally and/or physically abusive.
AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATORS will often
- try to dominate others - use humiliation to control others- criticize, blame or attack others- be very impulsive- have low frustration tolerance- speak in a loud, demanding and overbearing voice- act threateningly and rudely- not listen well - interrupt frequently- use “you” statements- have piercing eye contact and an overbearing posture
AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATION
The impact of a pattern of agressive communication is that these individuals:- become alienated from others- alienate others- generate fear and hatred in others- do not mature because every problem is someone else’s fault
The AGGRESSIVE COMMUNICATOR might say;
- “I’m superior and right and you’re inferior and wrong.”- “I’m loud, bossy and pushy.”- “I can dominate and intimidate others.”- “I can violate other people’s rights.”- “I’ll get my way no matter what.”- “You’re not worth anything.”- “I step on other people.”- “It’s all your fault.”- “I react instantly.”- “I’m entitled.”- “You owe me.”- “I own you.”
Aggression as a Tactic
Threat Tactics
Using power
Bluffing
Threating
Harming the other side when he/she passes over the limits
Implying harm by reprisal when the other side use his power hostile etc…
Coercive Tactics
Requesting compensation by complaining
Requesting commitment
Requesting something that the other side could not do
Hiding information
Confusing the other side
Humiliating the other side
How can you overcome aggression?
explore emotions of hurt and fear underlyıng the anger
develop empathetic understanding
assume the best intentions (whenever possible)
examine underlying expectations
choose happiness instead of anger
How can you overcome aggression?
Accept reality and forgive
“Forgiving is not forgetting, it is remembering and letting go.” (Claudia Black)
choose the HAPPINESS DOCTRINE over the fairness doctrine
choose ACCEPTING the unchangeable aspects of reality over hostility
“ Every moment of anger is one less moment of happiness”
How to Overcome Aggressive Negotiators Tactics
Beat aggression through managing the manipulative negotiation tactics of the other party by asking the right questions.
Stay calm and adopt an assertive approach
Notice the aggressor and allow them to “let of steam”
Listen actively
How to Overcome Aggressive Negotiators Tactics
Do not reward rudeness or abuse
Do not bluff
Focus on the story, not the aggression
Training and role-play
Is aggression always bad?
serving very positive functions when expressed properly. Studies continue to show that anger can have beneficial effects on individuals' health, their relationships and their work.
Socially, very positive changes can come from anger -- for instance, the civil rights movement of the 1960s or the women's suffrage movement in the early 20th century.
On an individual level, scientists have shown angriness actually strengthen personal relationships more than half of the time.
Is agression always bad?
Social scientists agree that anger can be beneficial when it is expressed constructively.
Constructive anger expression involves both parties, not just the angry person. Ideally, the angry person expresses his or her anger and the target has a chance to respond for solving a problem.
Agression Or Passivity - What Is Better?
I am the world. The world must obey me. I can never be wrong. I know what is to be done and how. All of you must follow what I say without any protest, because I tolerate no dissent. I am the storehouse of all the knowledge and what I do not know is not worth knowing. I am the most intelligent person going around and though I do not show it clearly, I know that all of you are much lower than me in intelligence. I am the boss.
Please be with me. I do not know how to face the world. I will do what you say, but please protect me from this world. I do not know much and please guide me at every step. I need you. Please help me at all the times.
These are two ends of extreme personalities. The first one - aggressive and the second one -passive. Psychology is as complex as the human mind and as the time passes more discoveries and more theories get propounded. But I am not talking about clinical psychology. I am talking about what we observe in our everyday life and what it teaches us.
As you read the descriptions above, you will agree that both the types are not healthy. The healthy personality has respect for its strengths and
acknowledges its weaknesses without feeling bad about them. The healthy personality respects others for their strengths and does not show any disdain for their weaknesses. He/she knows that all of us are imperfect in some way. The healthy personality does not try to overwhelm others with knowledge, but helps with guidance. The healthy type is equally not overwhelmed by more dominant people but acknowledges that they are good in some areas and respects them for that. But does not behave submissively.
In this world, none of us is perfect. We all should be ready to learn new things without feeling inferior. All right, I do not know how to play the piano. Please teach me. If I find out that I will learn it and like playing I will continue learning, otherwise I will try my hand at something else. For a healthy person, the qualities do not make a person inferior or superior. He/she treats all as human beings first and says that some one is good or not very good at doing something. If a healthy personality has to express his/her opinion about someone's shortcoming, it will not be - that person is a fool, but that person has certain deficiencies but the deficiencies can be taken care of by proper learning.
The AggressIon In our Dance show
In our dance programme we want to show how the agression could be show in an artistic way. Firstly there was a girl and two boys who was fighting for the girl. And also the music was hard and it also shows the aggressive behaviour. Among the boys one of them was good, and one of them was bad. And also the girl didn’t prefer both of them at the end. But the boys fighted.
Here, we thought that the effects of music and dance. For example, as a classic example we thought the fans of “arabesk”music. As a result of that we know the people who harms himself or herself and eachother. Further more, as we stated in our presentation and report, the artists are a model for the ordinaries. (social modeling). Beside this, we wanted to show as an application for reducing agression. Because the scientist shows us dance reduces the stress and aggression.