Addison Ma
Question 1
Until the end of the 20th Century, Australia’s regional and global role has greatly been dependant on the strength of its relationship with Britain. Australia's regional and global role has changed over the past 50 years. However, Australia's role was limited, due to its location and close ties with Britain. Australia is recognized as a stable and strong multicultural society. After World War II, Australia began to develop a more independent regional and global role and identity outside that of Britain. Closer relations with the US, and ties with neighbouring Asian countries were strengthened.
Australia’s role currently is to advance its own interests, strengthening itself whilst cooperating with other nations. Regionally, much focus is placed on Australia’s links and role in it. Strong economic and trade links with countries such, as Japan and China is a sign of this. On a global scale, Australia’s role has become less apparent. Weakening ties with UK meant that Australia had to strengthen its own ties with its surrounding nations first, much like England had with the European Union. But in retrospect, Australia has still remained a contributor to world trade. Australia is becoming a more significant competitor in global business, and an increasing number of trans-national corporations are setting up headquarters in Australia.
Australia has a Foreign Aid ODA of $1.66 billion, the objective of Australia's Foreign Aid program is to advance Australia's national interest by assisting developing countries to reduce poverty and achieve sustainable development. This shows Australia's role in helping other nations regionally and to some extent globally, one which was not evident 50 years ago. Australia’s role in the Asia Pacific took great importance, when it was called on to lead a UN peacekeeping force in East Timor in September 1999.
Question 2
1. Tensions can occur between nations in many different ways. There are many causes for political tensions, and possible conflicts. Many of these causes are geographically based, however there are non - geographical causes, and a bit of both. Many tensions occur over factors such as resources, property, wealth, economic, land use, ethnicity, culture, religion, military, boundaries, and land rights. In most cases, both sides believe they are ‘right’ in disputes over things such as land, natural supplies, and a majority of the time, these tensions never really go away. However tensions can also lead to extreme measures, as occurred during the Cold War. Examples would be “the space race”, and many advances in technology. Some of these occurances were beneficial to the world as a whole, but tensions will always be detrimental to the parties involved.
2. Conflicts between countries can occur for many reasons. Over various issues such as boundaries between countries, religion, political beliefs, migration, cultural differences, trade, access resources and markets and abuse of human rights. Conflicts can usually be resolved by conferences where the representatives for each country come together and work together. However, without this cooperation, some conflicts between countries can break out in war.
One of the biggest conflicts to happen in the Asia – Pacific region recently, was that between East Timor and Indonesia. In 1976, East Timor was forcibly annexed by Indonesia. For 20 years, East Timor’s citizens were harshly suppressed under the Soeharto Regime. In 1999, a United Nation’s supervised referendum for independence, led to pro-Indonesian militia attacks and rampages over the island. There were claims that these attacks were being coordinated by the Indonesian military. Much damage was caused, people were mass-killed, and houses were burnt. A UN peacekeeping force, initially led by Australia, was sent to the island to rebuild the country, and protect its citizen’s from militia attacks. This problem is yet to be fully resolved, but East Timor has become an independent nation, and the country is in a rebuilding phase.
In the Asia Pacific Region, the relationship between China and Taiwan is a conflict that has been ongoing for many years. The tension between the two countries is intense. China regards Taiwan as a rebel province and has threatened to attack the island of it declares independence or indefinitely delays reunification talks. Whilst no violence or military action has occurred, China and Taiwan are at a standstill.
Sometimes internal conflicts have led to wars. The Vietnam War and the Korean War are most notable. The internal conflict for land and power, led to many deaths, and support from outside nations. The Vietnam War was won by North Vietnam, after the fall of Saigon. The Korean War ended when The United States, North Korea and China all signed an armistice in 1953. It takes time but many conflicts are usually resolved, however some last for long periods of time
Question 3
1. Australia in its political relations has developed both multilateral and bilateral links.
Australia’s multilateral links with organizations such as the UN and World Trade Organisation strengthen Australia’s global position. Whilst bilateral links with New Zealand, United States are good for both countries involved. Australia’s regional and global links on such matters as peace, alliances, defence, trade and immigration are based on treaties. They are agreements, through political negotiations, which are binding under international law.
Regionally, Australia’s economic links with its Asian Pacific neighbours are now quite strong. After Australia signed a trade agreement with Japan in the 1950’s, in addition to weakening ties with UK and Europe, Australia’s regional links changed dramatically. The Asia Pacific region had enjoyed many booms in economic growth and with this Australia exported much more within the region. Countries such as Japan, China, Korea imported large amounts of Australian energy, minerals and agricultural products. Australia’s role as a major exporter in the region progressively grew larger. The Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) was established for leaders of Asia – Pacific nations to discuss issues such as economic and trade issues. Its goals are to strengthen links towards a strong economic community, and free trade within the region. Another one of Australia's important links is with New Zealand. Australians and New Zealanders are similar in many ways, environment, climates, and standard of living. A customs union developed between the two countries during the 1960's. There is almost free movement of goods, services, capital and people between the two nations. New Zealand is now Australia's fourth largest export market and the main market for Australia's elaborately transformed manufactures. These include goods such as pharmaceuticals, telecommunications equipment, office machinery and road vehicles.
Australia has important links with the United States. Since World War II, where the US were major allies with Australians, a link has grown with the US. These links have been mainly political and economical. However, other cultural, defense, and trade links have been set up. The main market for Australia's services exports is the United States of America. The USA is the major powerhouse, in the Asia-Pacific region and it is good for the US and especially Australia to have close ties with each other.
2. In the early years of European settlement, the links between Great Britain and the British colony in Sydney was one based of dependence. The colonies depended on Great Britain for survival – food and many basic supplies. By the end of the 1990s, the closer economic relations links were firmly established and there is almost free movement of goods, services, capital and people between the two countries. Also many of Britains links were also Australia’s links. But after the creation of certain European Union policies, it has been difficult for Australia to trade with European countries, and therefore it has had to look closer to home for trading. Australia's unique historical circumstances has led to the development of a certain set of attitudes and characteristics that underlie its foreign relation's behaviour, especially in regards to its attitude to Asia.This set up many links with Asia Pacific nations, as it was cheaper and closer for goods to be exchanged.
World War II also set up ties between Australia and various countries. Very close political, military and trade links have developed between Australia and the United States since World War II, when the United States was Australia's major ally. This relationship has slowly grown stronger, in the past 50 years and the two nations have both benefited. During World War II, Japan were enemies of Australia. But only a decade after the war, Australia and Japan signed a trade agreement, and both countries haven’t looked back since. Japan is one the world’s greatest importers of raw materials, and Australia can export these goods. An extremely close relationship with New Zealand has occurred to a variety of factors. Its location just across the Tasman Sea and the fact that is it also part of the Commonwealth nations and has helped Australia and New Zealand. Allies in war, rivals in sport for over a century, Australia and New Zealand are linked very closely in many facets including trade, politics, economics and defense. A lot of this due to ties with the British Empire, but also through common sense.
Question 4
1. About 1.3 billion people, nearly a quarter of the world's population, continue to live in extreme poverty. Over half of these poor are in the Asia-Pacific region. Foreign aid is the assistance in basics such as food, clean water and education. While these countries are in the process of developing their human and physical resources in order to improve the standard of living for their people. The five major forms of aid are tied aid, untied aid, food aid, technical assistance and emergency aid.
2.Loans are funds that are must be repaid with an amount of interest over a certain period of time. Grants are an outright transfer payment that does not have to be repaid. Bilateral aid is given in a partnership between governments of two countries. It is given in the form of money, education and training programs, technological aid, food aid and emergency relief. Multi-lateral aid is given by governments of many countries and is commonly distributed through international organisations such as the United Nations, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.
3. There are many Non - Government Organisations (N.G.O) that are involved in providing foreign aid. They may work with the government directly or indirectly through links with developing countries. They are usually voluntary or religious. There are over 120 NGO’s involved in foreign aid in Australia. These include UNICEF Australia, World Vision Australia, National Council of Churches Australia, CARE Australia, Australian Red Cross, and the Salvation Army.
4.The Top Ten recipient countries of Australia O.D.A in 1999-2000
No. / Country / Amount / No. / Country / Amount1 / Papua New Guinea / AU$ 321 307 000 / 6 / China / AU$ 56 476 000
2 / East Timor / AU$ 160 774 000 / 7 / Cambodia / AU$ 37 509 000
3 / Indonesia / AU$ 123 736 000 / 8 / Bangladesh / AU$ 31 752 000
4 / Vietnam / AU$ 77 655 000 / 9 / Thailand / AU$ 26 060 000
5 / Philippines / AU$ 58 845 000 / 10 / India / AU$ 20 170 000
5. Papua New Guinea is Australia’s closest neighbour. Before PNG became an independent nation in 1973, it was an Australian Colony. There is a deep and complex relationship between Australia and PNG, which dates back to the colonial period. Papua New Guinea is the largest recipient of Australia's O.D.A as both countries wish to develop the relationship with each other. Australia provides PNG with aid, in many aid forms. While Australia helps promote the well being of PNG, PNG is growing to become a larger and economically stable nation, which will be able to assist Australia in many ways. This can be through imports in natural resources such as gold and copper, which it is a major producer of, or defensive links. The political and economical links between these two countries will continue to grow and these two countries will be partnered through changing times. In 1989, a Treaty on Development Cooperation was signed between Australia and PNG. Australia’s aid program is implemented under this treaty.
Question 5
1. Human rights are the principle that all humans are created equal. Human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent. We are all born free and equal to each other; regardless of who we are, where we live or what we believe. They ensure we have the freedom to make independent choices and to develop our potential as human beings. No person, group, or government are permitted to interfere with or take away our rights as humans. Although views of this idea are not always accepted.
2. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was written and implemented in the aftermath of World War II. On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Declaration set out the basic rights and freedoms of all men, women and children. It contained 30 articles, which clearly states the fundamental rights of all human beings. It is often referred to as a ‘living document’ because it continues to address the basic rights and aspirations of men and women around the world The Declaration contains three forms of rights. They are Civil and political rights economic, Cultural and social rights and Solidarity rights.
3.The United Nations is not a 'global policeman'. It can't make laws and it can't demand a certain level of behaviour from different countries. But its aim is to find constructive ways to deal with international disputes, set human rights standards and address pressing global problems. Every year, thousands of complaints of human rights abuses reach the United Nations. Some of these complaints are handled by monitoring bodies that were created to implement specific instruments. There are however many other bodies within the United Nations and its specialised agencies that are directly or indirectly concerned with human rights. There are a number of intergovernmental bodies responsible for dealing with human rights abuses. The Commission of Human Rights is the main UN policy - making department in regards to human rights issues. It drafts international human rights conventions and declarations. Its also investigates allegations of human rights violations and handles communications relating to them. These bodies are responsible for protecting human rights. If someone is found guilty of exploiting ones human rights they can be sentenced to the full extent of international law.
The UN has created International Human Rights standards that were developed to protect people's human rights against violations by individuals, groups or nations. In dealing with alleged violations, UN has relied on investigation, discussion, publicity and censure to attempt to stop these abuses. In extreme cases, it can recommend that Member States impose arms embargoes or wide-ranging sanctions against nations, which threaten to disrupt international peace or are in severe breach of human rights standards.
4. UN resolutions become intangible resources. They may not confer to the legitimacy of the law. They are not a super government, and its words seldom become law. Its mandates can only be enforced against an unwilling sate only if members are willing to use necessary coercion. If a human rights violation has occurred, it has no means of providing redress other than negotiations, censure or levying of sanctions. However its rulings are very powerful and influential.
The UN has often been criticised of doing too much talking and not taking enough action but sometimes talking is far more appropriate. As shown in the example below, the UN mixes educating with prosecution in its battles to fight human rights abusers. So far the UN has been very effective in doing so by using force and education as a weapon. An example of the UN following up human rights abuses is the ICTY. The ICTY (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia) is a UN endorsed body that is currently prosecuting human rights offenders of the previous Yugoslavian era. There are currently 46 accused in a detention unit, 27 with arrest warrants to their names, an additional seven with international arrest warrants and already 31 people have been, or are in completion, or are awaiting trial. This shows the effectiveness of the UN in following up human rights abusers. The UN has named over 100 people as human rights offenders and more than half of them are in custody.
5. One controversial issue that has surrounded Australia’s position on human rights has been that of voluntary euthanasia in the Northern Territory. With the introduction of voluntary euthanasia laws in the Northern Territory and subsequent attempts to override those laws through federal legislation, it has received much publicity. Voluntary euthanasia is the termination of life at the request of the person killed. This raised many ethical, moral, religious, philosophical, legal, constitutional and human rights issues. Much debate was over The Rights of the Terminally ill Act 1995 (NT) (ROTTIA), which was introduced on the 25th of May 1995. In essence under certain conditions permitted physician-assisted suicide and active voluntary euthanasia. The ROTTIA was unique not only within Australia, but was the first law that authorised a limited form of voluntary active euthanasia, in all post World War II countries. Immediately from the introduction of the ROTTIA, it was under attack from many people to repeal the law. On Tuesday 10th December 1996 the Federal House of Representatives passed the Kevin Andrews Private Member's Bill. The vote was 88 to 35 in favour. It would override the NT Legislation on Euthanasia.