Unit XI Study Guide- Testing and Individual Differences
Key Terms:
(Make flashcards on these terms for extra credit towards your exam grade. Include examples, diagrams, etc)
neurondendritesaxonmyelinaction potential
refractory periodthresholdall-or-none responsesynapseneurotransmitter
reuptakeendorphinagonistantagonistnervous system
central nervous systemperipheral NSnervessensory neuronmotor neuron
interneuronssomatic NSautonomic NSsympathetic NSparasympathetic NS
reflexendocrine systemhormonesadrenal glandpituitary gland
lesionelectroencephalogramCT scanPET scanMRI
fMRIbrainstemmedullathalamusreticular formation
cerebellumlimbic systemamygdalahypothalamuscerebral cortex
glial cellsfrontal lobeparietal lobeoccipital lobetemporal lobes
motor cortexsomatosensory cortexassociation areasplasticityneurogenesis
corpus callosumsplit brainconsciousnesscognitive neurosciencedual processing
behavior geneticschromosomesDNAgenesgenome
epigeneticsnatural selectionmutation
Tip: Use Mnemonic Devices to Remember Key Material:
This unit is by far one of the most vocabulary-rich on the course. Making useful and meaningful vocabulary cards with examples and references, questions and observations is a sure fire way to master the terminology. In addition, you will want to develop key mnemonic devices (memory tricks) to learn the structures and functions of the brain and nervous system. One such device is called the Method of Loci. (Loci is the plural of the Latin locus, meaning place or location.) You begin by visualizing a location you know well, such as your home. Then you insert items you wish to recall into various rooms and places in your ‘home’. For instance, in this unit you will be learning about the amygdala, a structure in the brain that plays a key role in extreme feelings such as rage and anger. Perhaps, in your visual ‘home’ you place an image of the amygdala (it doesn’t have to actually look like an amygdala, try just placing the word) in your diary next to your bed. A dairy is place you might record emotions such as anger and rage. Following this idea, you might place your hypothalamus in the refrigerator. Any guesses as to the function of the hypothalamus? You’ll find out in this unit!
Key Contributors:
(Use the Key Contributor Chart template for each of the following key contributors. Turn in to EngradePro)
Paul BrocaRoger SperryCarl WernickeMichael Gazzaniga
Reading Guide:
Directions: While reading the assigned pages of the chapter, complete the reading guide below. Feel free to add additional information to the guide as you see fit. The reading guide will be turned in through EngradePro. It is recommended that you print out a copy of the completed guide for your binder.
Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System (pg. 65-72):
1. Fill in the chart below with the functions of each of these neural structures.
Structure / Functiondendrite / Receives messages and conducts impulses toward the cell body.
cell body / The cell’s life-support center, contains the nucleus.
axon / Passes messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
terminal branches / Forms junctions with other cells, contain the vesicles with neurotransmitters.
myelin sheath / A fatty tissue layer that enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.
2. Describe what the action potential is and why it is important to neural communication.
The action potential is the electrical impulse that travels down an axon. Without an action potential, there is no neural communication.
3. Use page 66- 68 and Figure 3.3 to help you complete this paragraph describing the process of the action potential .
The fluid outside the axon membrane is largely made up of positively but the fluid inside the membrane is primarily made up of negatively charged ions. This state is referred to as resting potential. We refer to the axon’s surface as a semipermeable membrane since it will only allow particular ions to pass through. When a neuron fires, the axon membrane becomes permeable and positively charged sodium ions flow into the cell. This depolarizes that part of the axon and then causes the next section of the membrane to become permeable. This occurs over and over down the line of the axon and serves to push the nerve impulse down the neuron. During the refractory period, the positive ions are pumped back out of the cell and the axon returns to the original state of polarity, called the resting potential, prepared to fire again.
4. What is the difference between an excitatory postsynaptic potential (nerve signal) and an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (nerve signal)?
Excitatory signals act like the accelerator of a car and cause neural activity.
Inhibitory signals act like the brake of a car and prevent neural activity.
Excitatory signals must outweigh inhibitory signals for an action potential to occur.
5. What is a threshold? (This is a very important concept that I did not see covered in your textbook. You will need to Google this)
6. If the level of neural stimulation is increased above the threshold, it does not increase the impulse intensity. Why?
It merely activates the action potential. Neurons fire according to the all-or-none law: The either fire or do not fire, there are not degrees of firing.
7. Create a metaphor or a simile for the process of neural transmission.
Neural transmission is like… answers will vary.
8. What is a synapse?
It is the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
9. How do neurons communicate with each other?
When an action potential reaches the knob-like terminals at an axon’s end, it triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Within milliseconds, the neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron. The receiving neurons unlock ion channels, the ions flow in and either excite or inhibit the neuron’s ability to fire.
Central Nervous System Part 1 (pg. 72-91):
1. Create a concept map that correctly connects each of the following components of the nervous system. Be sure include the function of each component in your concept map. Component list: central nervous system (CNS), parasympathetic nervous system, nervous system, autonomic nervous system, peripheral nervous system (PNS), sympathetic nervous system, somatic nervous system.
Central Nervous System Part 2 (pg. 91-98):
1. What is lateralization, and why is it important in the way our brain functions?
Lateralization is the differing functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
Research over the years has shown that damage to one hemisphere or the other can produce different problems and knowing this can help predict behavior.
2. What is meant by the term split brain? Is it correct to refer to this condition as “having two brains”?
Split brain is a term used to describe the brain after cutting the corpus callosum.
No, this is not two brains, but rather, one brain with two hemispheres that no longer communicate.
3. Fill in the chart below with some of the tasks served by each of the hemisphere of the brain. As you continue reading this chapter and your outline notes, return to this chart and add new information as you learn it.
Left Hemisphere Functions / Right Hemisphere FunctionsReading / Perceptual tasks
Writing / Making inferences
Speaking / Modulating speech
Certain arithmetic reasoning/calculating / Orchestrating our sense of self
4. What role does the corpus callosum play in the relation of the two hemispheres?
It connects the two hemispheres and relays messages between them.
5. How does split-brain research help us to understand the functions of our two brain hemispheres?
By severing the corpus callosum and the communication between each hemisphere, researchers can study the functions of each hemisphere separately.
6. What is plasticity and what are two instances in which it could occur?
Plasticity is the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage by building new pathways based on experience.
Answers will vary.
7. What is the significance of plasticity?
It helps an individual compensate for loss of function and continue functioning to some degree.
8. Give two examples from the text or your outline notes of the brain’s ability to reorganize or reassign brain functions.
A blind person who reads Braille with one finger shows an increase in the brain area dedicated to the function of that finger and neural pathways form in the visual cortex that is unused.
Musicians have a larger portion of cortex devoted to the movement of their hands than non-musicians, and non-musicians who practice making rhythmic finger movements will increase the amount of cortex devoted to this task as they become better at it.
9. How is neurogenesis different from plasticity?
Plasticity involves the reuse of existing brain areas for new purposes, while neurogenesis involves the creation of new brain cells.
The Chemistry of Psychology and The Endocrine System (pg. 99-105):
1. What are the three classes of neurotransmitters? Give a brief example of each. Make sure your description includes examples.
1. Small molecules- discovered first, occur in both central and peripheral nervous system; examples acetylcholine, and catecholamine such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine; GABA, and glutamate.
2. Peptides- include hundreds of chemicals that can act as neurotransmitters, examples endorphins,
3. Gases- gases such as nitric oxide and carbon monoxide can act as neurotransmitters.
2. What effect does the release of endorphins have on the body?
Endorphin, or endogenous morphine, is a type of neurotransmitter similar to morphine that is released in response to pain and vigorous exercise. The release of endorphins has a calming, pain-relieving effect on the body.
3. Neurotransmitters are the chemical molecules that bind to the receptor sites. For each neurotransmitters listed below, explain its function. Also, list what diseases are associated with each neurotransmitter.
- Acetylcholine
- Dopamine
- Serotonin
- Norepinephrine
- GABA
- Glutamate
- Endorphins
Neurotransmitter / Function / Diseases
Acetylcholine / Memory, movement / Alzheimer’s disease
Norepinephrine / Mood, sleep, learning / Depression
Serotonin / Mood, appetite, impulsivity / Depression
Dopamine / Movement, reward / Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia
GABA / Sleep, movement / Anxiety, Huntington’s disease, epilepsy
Glutamate / Memory / Damage after a stroke
Endorphins / Pain control / No established disorder
4. In what ways do the endocrine and nervous system act similarly? In what ways do they act differently?
It influences our interest in sex, food, aggression and so on.
5. Use the information from your text and Figure 3.22 to complete the chart of endocrine structures and functions below.
Structure / FunctionHypothalamus / Controls pituitary gland
Ovaries / Secretes female hormones
Adrenal glands / Triggers fight-or-flight response
Pituitary gland / Releases growth hormone, oxytocin, and other hormones
Thyroid / Affects metabolism
Testis / Secretes male hormones
Pancreas / Regulates the level of sugar in the blood
Parathyroid / Regulates level of calcium in the blood
6. Why is the pituitary gland referred to as the master gland?
It regulates other pituitary glands under the influence of the hypothalamus.
Behavior Genetics (Appendix B pg. A5-A12):
There may be several questions in this section you will need to use your outline notes to find the answers
1. Genes can be either active/expressed or inactive. What does this mean?
2. Identical (monozygotic) twins form from one fertilized egg call and are genetically identical.
What are two important qualifications to the statement above? Although they have the same genes, they don’t always have the same number of copies of those genes- one twin may be more at risk for certain illnesses. Most twins share a placenta but one of every three has two separate placenta- one twin’s placenta may provide slightly better nourishment which would contribute to twin differences.
3. Fraternal twins form from separate fertilized eggs. They share a fetal environment but are genetically no more similar than brothers and sisters.
4. Discuss the findings of identical twin studies where the identical twins are raised apart.
Found that identical twins raised apart have similarities in tastes, physical attributes, personality, abilities, interests, and even fears.
5. According to your text and the outline notes, what is the rather counterintuitive findings regarding adoptive families versus biological families?
People who grow up together, whether biologically related or not, do not much resemble each other in terms of personality. Adoptive children are more similar to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents with whom they live.
6. The environment shared by a family’s children has virtually no discernable impact on personalities.
a. Describe what is meant by this statement, and why people are often surprised by this finding.
Environment really doesn’t have that large of an impact on personality and this is surprising because most people would argue that it does. In fact, children in the same family are often very different.
b. In what ways does the statement above seem true to your family, extended family, or friends and their siblings.
Answers will vary.
7. How is heritability defined?
Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. Heritability may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
Evolutionary Psychology (Myer’s Text):
1. No more than 5 percent of the genetic differences among humans arise from population group differences. Some 95 percent of genetic variation exists within population.
a. How does the text’s author explain the statement above using the example of Icelandic villagers and Kenyans?
The typical genetic difference between the two Icelandic villagers or between the two Kenyans is much greater than the average difference between the groups.
b. How might this statement be explained using a different group, for example, male and female?
The genetic differences between two males are greater than the average difference between males and females.
2. What is the “second Darwinian revolution” and why is it significant?
The “second Darwinian revolution” is the application of Darwinian principles of psychology. Evolutionary psychologists ask what over time has caused certain behaviors and fears, such as phobias of snakes over more dangerous threats such as guns.
3. How does evolutionary psychology explain behavior tendencies?
The behaviors that promote success in survival become selected over generations.
4. What arguments do evolutionary psychologists make that support men’s increased interest in sex?
One man can spread his genes through many females, and is capable of fathering more children at once than one mother can carry.
5. What arguments do evolutionary psychologists make that support women’s increased interest in partnering and pairing?
Women have to incubate and nurse one infant at a time and by pairing wisely, a woman increases the odds that her genes will pass into the future.
6. What is significant about these presumed gender differences in mating preferences?
People believe them to be true and women look for older, mature and settled males for partners, while men look for younger, fertile women for partners.
7. List three criticisms of evolutionary psychology.
- Starts with an effect and works backward
- Suggests a genetic determinism
- Blurs the line between genetic legacy and social-cultural tradition.
8. Using Figure 15.1, discuss the three influences on individual development according to the biopsychosocial model.
Answers will vary, but a strong answer discusses biological influences, psychological influences, and social-cultural influences from the figure.