Lecture Notes & Test Review
Table of Contents
MEDICAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
UNIT 1 – BODY PLAN AND ORGANIZATION 5
Students will explore careers in health care and describe the body plan and organization and homeostasis.
Lecture Notes 6
Test Review 13
UNIT 2 - BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BODY CHEMISTRY 17
Students will explain basic principles of body chemistry.
Lecture Notes 18
Test Review 27
UNIT 3 - CELLS, HISTOLOGY, INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 31
Students will describe basic concepts of structures and functions of cells, histology, and the integumentary system.
Lecture Notes 32
Test Review 53
UNIT 4 - SKELETAL SYSTEM 57
Students will describe the structures and functions of the skeletal system and its components.
Lecture Notes 58
Test Review 69
UNIT 5 - MUSCULAR SYSTEM 73
Students will describe the structures and functions of the muscular system and its components.
Lecture Notes 74
Test Review 83
UNIT 6 - NERVOUS SYSTEM / SPECIAL SENSES 87
Students will describe the structures and functions of the nervous system and special senses.
Lecture Notes 88
Test Review 105
UNIT 7 - ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 111
Students will describe the structures and functions associated with the endocrine system.
Lecture Notes 112
Test Review 117
UNIT 8 - BLOOD / LYMPHATIC / CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMS 121
Students will describe the components and functions associated with blood, and the structures and functions of the lymphatic and cardiovascular systems.
Lecture Notes 122
Test Review 147
UNIT 9 - Respiratory System 157
Students will describe the structures and functions associated with the respiratory system.
Lecture Notes 158
Test Review 165
UNIT 10 - DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 169
Students will describe the structures and functions associated with the digestive system.
Lecture Notes 170
Test Review 179
UNIT 11 - URINARY SYSTEM 183
Students will describe the structures and functions associated with the urinary system.
Lecture Notes 184
Test Review 193
UNIT 12 - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 197
Students will describe the structures and functions associated with the reproductive system.
Lecture Notes 198
Test Review 215
NOTES
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NOTES
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UNIT 1 – BODY PLAN AND ORGANIZATION
STANDARD
Students will explore careers in health care and describe the body plan and organization and homeostasis.
OBJECTIVES
01.01 Students will explore careers in health care.
• Students will participate in a career exploration experience to investigate a variety of health care careers related to therapeutic services, diagnostic services, health informatics, support services, and biomedical research and development pathways.
01.02 Students will provide an oral and/or written report for each career exploration utilizing the report outline located in the MAP curriculum.
01.03 Students will select a topic and defend their position on a current medical ethical dilemma.
01.04 Contrast the sciences of anatomy and physiology.
01.05 Describe the six levels of structural organization of the human body.
(chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, organism)
01.06 Describe metabolism and its anabolic and catabolic processes.
01.07 Apply directional terms used in human anatomy.
(posterior/anterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep, superior/inferior)
01.08 Apply commonly used planes to divide the body.
(sagittal, midsagittal, transverse [horizontal], frontal [coronal])
01.09 Identify the body cavities and locate the following organs within each cavity.
• Dorsal Cavity
o Vertebral - spinal cord
o Cranial - brain
• Ventral Cavity
o Thoracic – heart, lungs
o Pleural (2) - lungs
o Mediastinum - heart, bronchi, esophagus, thymus
o Pericardial - heart
• Abdominopelvic Cavity
o Abdominal - liver, spleen, intestines, kidneys, stomach
o Pelvic - intestines, urinary bladder, sex organs
01.10 Identify the major organ(s) in each abdominal quadrant.
●RUQ - right upper quadrant - liver, gallbladder, right kidney
●RLQ - right lower quadrant – cecum, appendix, right ovary
●LUQ - left upper quadrant - spleen, stomach, left kidney
●LLQ - left lower quadrant - left ovary
01.11 Examine the relationship between homeostasis and stress.
01.12 Differentiate between negative and positive feedback mechanisms.
UNIT 1 – BODY PLAN AND ORGANIZATION
LECTURE NOTES
1.03 CONTRAST THE SCIENCES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
A. Anatomy
Anatomy is the scientific study of structures and the relationship of structures to each other. (FORM)
B. Physiology
Physiology is the scientific study of how body structures and systems function to perform life processes. (FUNCTION)
1.04 LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
A. Chemical Level
The chemical level includes all elements (atoms) and molecules essential for maintaining life. Examples of the four most common elements in the body include: (C) carbon, (H) hydrogen, (O) oxygen and (N) nitrogen. Examples of molecules include glucose and water.
B. Cellular Level
The cell is the basic unit of structure and function. Each cell has a unique shape and function. Some examples of cells include eggs (ova), spermatozoa, muscle cells, nerve cells, and blood cells.
C. Tissue Level
Tissues are groups of similar cells found together performing a specific
function. The four primary tissue types include: epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous.
D. Organ Level
Organs are structures composed of two or more different tissues having specific functions and recognizable shapes. Some examples of organs include the heart, brain, kidneys, and liver.
E. System Level
Systems are groups of organs which work together for a common function.
Some examples include the digestive, cardiovascular, nervous,
and lymphatic systems.
F. Organism Level
An organism is a group of organ systems which function together to meet the needs of the individual.
1.05 METABOLISM
A. Definition
Metabolism is the total of all chemical processes that occur in the body. Metabolism refers specifically to the two processes associated with converting nutrients into energy.
1. Anabolism
Anabolism uses energy to synthesize or manufacture new cells, tissues or molecules.
2. Catabolism
Catabolism is the breakdown of tissues or chemicals to produce energy.
1.06 DIRECTIONAL TERMS
These terms will help to standardize discussion about locations and directions of the body.
A. Posterior – to the back
B. Anterior – to the front
C. Medial – towards the middle
D. Lateral – towards the side
E. Proximal – closest to the trunk or main part of the body
F. Distal – away from the trunk or the main part of the body
G. Superficial – towards the surface
H. Deep – away from the surface
I. Superior – above
J. Inferior -- below
These additional directional terms are found in the Medical Terminology competency, and are provided here for the convenience of the teacher.
Directional terms are used to describe joint movements that occur in different directions and planes. The body is assumed to be in anatomical position; standing erect, the face forward, and the arms at the sides with the palms forward. A person may be lying down in anatomical position. The person is supine when lying on the back, face up or prone when lying face down on the abdomen.
A. Abduction
Moving a body part away from the midline.
B. Adduction
Moving a body part toward the midline.
C. Circumduction
Moving a body part in a circular motion.
D. Depression
Lowering a body part.
E. Dorsiflexion
Bending the foot upward by flexing the foot at the ankle.
F. Elevation
Raising a body part.
G. Eversion
Turning the foot so the sole is outward.
H. Extension
Increasing the joint angle to straighten body parts.
I. Flexion
Decreasing the joint angle to bring two body parts closer together.
J. Hyperextension
Excessive extension of body parts at a joint; moving a part beyond normal anatomical position.
K. Inversion
Turning the foot so the sole of the foot is inward.
L. Plantar flexion
Bending the foot downward by extending the foot at the ankle.
M. Pronation
Turning the hand with the palm down or turning the foot so the medial margin is lowered.
N. Protraction
Moving a body part forward.
O. Retraction
Moving a body part backward.
P. Supination
Turning the hand with the palm upward or turning the foot so the medial margin is raised.
1.07 BODY PLANES
Body planes refer to any slice or cut through a three-dimensional structure allowing us to visualize relationships between those parts. CT (Computed Tomography Imaging) and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) technology use these principles.
A. Sagittal Plane
The sagittal plane is a vertical plane (lengthwise) dividing the body or an organ into right and left sections.
B. Midsagittal Plane
The midsagittal plane is a vertical plane (lengthwise) dividing the body or an organ into equal right and left halves.
C. Transverse (Cross-Section, Horizontal)
The transverse plane is a horizontal plane dividing the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections.
D. Frontal (Coronal)
The frontal plane is a vertical plane dividing the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.
1.08 BODY CAVITIES
Body cavities are openings within the torso which contain organs, protect delicate organs from accidental shocks and bumps, and permit the expansion and contraction of organs without disrupting the activities of other organs.
A. Dorsal Cavity
The dorsal cavity is located on the posterior/dorsal surface of the body and surrounds the brain and the spinal cord.
1. Spinal (Vertebral) Cavity
The spinal cavity is formed by the vertebrae of the spine and surrounds spinal cord..
2. Cranial Cavity
The bones of the skull create the cranial cavity to protect the brain.
B. Ventral Cavity
The ventral cavity is located on the anterior/ventral surface of the body and contains the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The walls of the cavities are composed of skin, muscle, connective tissue, bone (for two cavities), and the serous membrane.
1. Thoracic Cavity
The thoracic cavity is the portion of ventral cavity superior to the diaphragm.
a. Pleural Cavities
The pleural cavities are the spaces surrounding each lung.
b. Mediastinum
The mediastinum is the broad, middle tissue mass of the thoracic cavity dividing the lungs into two cavities. It includes the aorta, other great blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, thymus, pericardial cavity, and heart.
c. Pericardial Cavity
The pericardial cavity is the space in which the heart is located.
2. Abdominopelvic Cavity
The abdominopelvic cavity is portion of the ventral cavity inferior to the diaphragm.
a. Abdominal Cavity
(1) The abdominal cavity is the superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity. It extends from the diaphragm to the superior margin of the pelvic girdle.
(2) The abdominal cavity contains the organs known as the viscera. The organs include the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestines, and most of the large intestine.
b. Pelvic Cavity
(1) The pelvic cavity is surrounded by the pelvic bones.
(2) The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, cecum, appendix, sigmoid colon, rectum, intestines, and the male or female internal reproductive organs.
1.09. ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
A. Abdominopelvic Quadrants
The abdominopelvic quadrants are imaginary lines intersecting through the umbilicus to divide the abdominopelvic cavity into four areas. The quadrants are used by clinical personnel to describe the location of abdominopelvic pain, tumors, or other abnormalities.
1. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
a. Liver
b. Right Kidney
c. Gallbladder
2. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
a. Spleen
b. Stomach
c. Left Kidney
3. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
a. Cecum
b. Appendix
c. Right Ovary
4. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
a. Left ovary
1.10. EXAMINE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOMEOSTASIS
AND STRESS
A. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the body’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes that occur internally or externally.
B. Stress
Stress is an imbalance in the body’s internal environment. A stressor is something that causes stress and may be physical (illness or injury), emotional (such as bipolar disorder or obsessive compulsive disorder), metabolic (starvation), or environmental (heat, cold). Stressors may be
further classified as external or internal.
1. External stressors: heat, cold, noise. light, exercise
2. Internal stressors: pain, tumors, hypertension, chemicals
1.11 DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
A. Components of Feedback Mechanisms
Feedback mechanisms function continuously to monitor the level of chemicals, molecules, gases, pressure, pH, nutrients, glucose, water, temperature, and other vital parameters. The feedback model contains the following components:
1. Stimulus
Any stress that changes a controlled condition.
2. Receptor
Monitors changes in the controlled condition and sends information (Input) to the control center.
3. Control Center
An area in the body that receives information about the status of a controlled condition from a receptor and determines an appropriate course of action.
4. Effector
Receives information from the control center and produces a
response.
5. Response
The action of the effector.
B. Types of Feedback Mechanisms
1. Negative Feedback Mechanisms (Inhibitory)
The reaction of the body (output) counteracts the stress (input) in order to restore homeostasis. Simply stated, negative feedback mechanisms reverse the effects of the change. EXAMPLE: Blood Glucose. Blood glucose normally ranges between 80 milligrams and 120 milligrams in a blood sample. When we eat, our blood sugar rises above normal levels. This causes insulin to be released from the pancreas to facilitate the movement of glucose from the blood and into the body cells. The blood sugar level drops back to the normal. Examples of other negative feedback mechanisms include regulation of blood pressure, body temperature, and water balance.(For other examples, refer to the endocrine system).
2. Positive Feedback Mechanisms (Stimulatory)
The reaction of the body (output) is stimulated or intensified by the input. In other words, the response enhances the stimulus. EXAMPLE: Breast feeding shows the hormonal control of milk let-down by a suckling infant. Other non-lethal examples of positive feedback mechanisms include labor contractions and blood clotting.
NOTES
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Unit 1: Body Plan & Organization
Test Review
1. Define anatomy and contrast it with physiology.
2. Arrange and identify, in order, the six levels of structural organization of the human body. Lowest to highest.