Tijdsbalk Palmersite Begrippen

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Metternich (1773-1589)
The Austrian Empire dominated central Europe. Austria was a cosmopolitan state, existing because of its Habsburg dynasty. Its great political leader was Prince Klemens von Metternich, who epitomized reactionary conservatism since anything else would destroy Austria. Metternich also opposed moves to constitutionalism in German states -since Austria was a part of Germany, and calls for a united Germany would pose a danger to Austria.

J.S. Mill (1806-1873)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the most important Liberal thinker of the mid 19th century. Brought up by a strict utilitarian father, he could read Greek at age 4. He stands at the transition stage between old individualist Liberalism and the later Liberal parties which took the principle of the "greatest happiness for the greatest number" and used it to promote social welfarism. In On Liberty (1859), his most famous political work,t he outlined three fundamental freedoms:- of Belief, of Taste and pursuits, of Uniting with others. But he also discussed the rights of society as he saw individual actions have social consequences and that sometimes the interests of the community must come first.

Congress of Vienna (1814)
The Congress of Vienna ran from September 1814 to November 1815. Four Powers dominated -Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia - and they constructed a post-Napoleonic political order around four principles: No one power should dominate Europe; legitimate monarchs should be restored to power; France should be contained; there was a non-vindictive boundary settlement with France. There were plans to maintain order by having frequent meetings -continued for a few years - the so called "Concert of Europe", but soon disagreements made this redundant. However, there was no major general war in Europe for a hundred years. The Balance of Power worked.

The Quadruple Alliance (1815)
In 1815 Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia established a "quadruple alliance"to regulate European politics after the fall of Napoleon.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was born in Trier in the Rhineland. His father was a Jewish convert to Lutheranism. After attending universities in Bonn, Berlin and Jena, he published radical papers in Koln and Belgium, [Rheinische Zeitung] until 1849 when he came to live in London for many years. Marx drew his theory from three main sources: German philosophy, English economics and French history. While much of what he wrote is complex,and sometimes turgid, he was also able of writing prose inspiring enough to ignite apolitical movement.

Carlsbad Decrees (1819)
The Carlsbad Decrees showed the fear of the German states about nationalism and liberalism. These decrees banned student associations[Burschenschaften] -which advocated replacing local loyalties with loyalty to a united German state. Secret police went into operation in many German states and censorship was imposed in universities.

Peterloo Massacre (1819)
Following the defeat of Napoleon, a very conservative "Tory" government takes over in Britain. Its goals were to support the interests of the traditional country landowner. But this was against the massively shifting social and economic background of the Industrial revolution. Political and police coercion was used. Famously at Peterloo in 1819 a peaceful political gathering in Manchester was attacked by troops.

Revolts in Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont (1821)
After the Congress of Vienna, Italy was left divided between many small states,most of them dominated by non-Italian ruling houses restored to power by the allies. The new governments acted repressively, and sent much of the Italian intelligentsia to prisoner exile. A series of revolts challenged these regimes, but all were suppressed by military force.

Revolt in Spain (1822)
One of the early tests of the Concert of Europe came when a liberal revolt came arose Spain. Despite Britain's opposition, the other powers authorized France to intervene to crush the rebellion.

Decembrists' Revolt in Russia (1825)
Under Tsar Alexander I (b.1777-r.1801-d.1825) Russia was the most reactionary country of all. After the blows dealt by Napoleon, the Russian monarchy opposed all change. It also gained a reputation as great military power. Alexander's successor, Tsar Nicholas I (1825-1855) adopted a policy of "Official Nationalism," with the slogan "Orthodoxy, Aristocracy, and Nationalism." Just after he assumed the throne a group of liberal army officers revolted. Nicholas crushed them, and ever after opposed liberalism, kept serfdom, and resisted any change. This had the effect of alienating almost all thinking people from the regime.

Greek Independence (1829)
By the 1820s the Ottoman Empire had succumbed to corrupt government. Greeks mounted a national liberation movement, and were supported by Romantics in Western Europe who had been brought up reading Homer and the Greek classics. With the aid of France,Britain and Russia, a small Greek state was established, but one which added territory piece by piece as the Ottoman Empire got weaker during the 19th century.

Revolutions in France, Belgium, Poland, and Italy (1830)
The Bourbon monarchy was restored in France in 1815. The first new king, Louis XVIII (a brother of the Louis XVI who had been executed) was a fairly mild ruler and issued The Charter of 1814, which permitted religious toleration, but made catholicism the official religion. It did not disturb property changes since 1789.The next king proved to be a problem -- Charles X in 1824. He tried to overturn the Charter after liberals scored a victory in Elections to Chamber of Deputies. In 1830 he faced a revolution. It was primarily a political revolt, although Paris workers --following an economic downturn after 1827-- also took to the streets. Middle class deputies seized moment to bring about a constitutional monarchy. In July 1830 revolt brought King Louis Philippe (a distant relative of the Bourbon dynasty) to throne. He accepted The Charter as a right of the people. The same year also saw revolutions in Belgium, which successfully broke away from the Netherlands; in Poland, which was suppressed by the Russian Army; and in Italy, which was suppressed by Austria.

Young Italy founded (1831)
Nationalism was initially linked with Liberals who, especially in Germany and Italy led the call for unity versus the old rulers. The liberal ideal of "popular sovereignity" -- i.e. that the right to rule derives from the people -- made liberalism and nationalism fit well together. Young Italy, led by Giuseppe Mazzini(1805-1872), was a paradigmatic liberal nationalist organization. It originated after the suppression of the 1830 revolution and kept alive nationalist hopes in Italy.

British Reform Bill (1832)
Throughout the 1820's there were political campaigns for the reform of Parliament and economic Free Trade. In 1832 the Great Reform Bill was made law -- a compromise with the middle class that prevented revolution. From 1832 on, British politics was essentially"liberal". This is not the "liberalism" of today, but a political ideology which promoted market economics and efficient government. "Liberals"were the party of business interests.

Britain abolishes slavery in its Colonies (1833)
British evangelical Christians had turned against slavery in the late 18thcentury. In 1833, the new Reform Parliament banned slavery in all Britain's colonies, and the Royal Navy began to act against the Atlantic slave trade of other countries.

Zollverein founded (1834)
One of Britain's advantages at the start of the Industrial Revolution was the complete lack of internal tariff barriers. In Germany, which was divided into many small states,such tariffs and tolls presented a serious problem to economic growth. The Zollverein (or "Customs Union") was a conscious effort to enable German industry to develop. It also turned out to be the first step towards German unification.

Chartist Movement begins (1838)
In the late 1830s, Britain acquired a mass working class movement organized around a"People's Charter" - Chartism. The movement began when in 1836 William Lovett(1800-1877) formed London Working Men's Association. The Charter had six points - all connected to how Parliament was run. It called for: Universal male suffrage; Annual elections; Secret ballots; Equal electoral districts; Abolition of property qualifications for MPs; Payments of members of parliament. The movement was radical and quite sophisticated. Its most renowned orator was Fergus O'Connor, who made speeches all over the country. It was not entirely united as a movement - some would not accept violence.Once conditions improved in late 1840s it lost some of its force. But at once stage it had the support of about half the population. It is a unique example of a mass working class movement before Marxism.

Irish Famine (1846-1848)
Ireland relied on the potato as its main source of food. In 1845, a fungus attacked the potato crop, and famine broke out. The British government, concluding that government should not interfere in the economy did nothing, and even allowed food to be exported from Ireland. The result was more that a million dead in Ireland, and a massive emigration.

Repeal of Corn Laws in Britain (1846)

The Communist Manifesto (1848)
Karl Marx' and Frederich Engels' Communist Manifesto qualifies as a"Great Book" both for its elevated rhetoric and its later impact. To some degree it was a work of fiction since there was no actual Communist party at the time. Das Kapital, written from 1867 on, was probably Marx's major theoretical work, but the Manifesto,with its memorable lines and images, was the source of most Communists' inspiration.

Revolutions of 1848 (1848)
The 1848 Revolution in France led to popular upheavals throughout Europe, especially in the Austrian Empire - which was the most illiberal and anti-nationalist state in Europe.Revolutions also severely challenged established rulers in Italy, and Germany.

Revolutions of 1848 (1848)
In 1848 a whole series of revolutions took place throughout Europe. Beginning in France,they severely challenged established rulers in Austria, Italy, and Germany.

Italian Unification (1850-1860)

Louis Napoleon becomes emperor of France (1851)
In the French Presidential Elections of 1848, a split between radicals led to the election of Louis Napoleon (1808-1873) in 1848. He was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, and after being elected president of France he followed a family tradition by using a popular plebescite to make himself emperor in 1851. He took the title Napoleon III, claiming that Napoleon's son should have been Napoleon II. His reign lasted until 1870, and in practice, his government adopted liberal methods. Among peasants who had voted for Louis Napoleon, it seems that many believed it was Napoleon I who had given them their land, rather than their own actions in 1789. This "Napoleonic Legend" mixed up ideas of romanticism, nationalism, and peasant desires.

Cavour becomes prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia (1852)
The Kingdom of Sardinia was the most important Italian run state, and the focus of Nationalist aspirations in Italy. Until 1850 Italy was dominated by Austria, and a battle ground for the great powers. Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1864) was the semi-liberal minister of Kingdom of Sardinia. 1851 to 1861. He built Sardinia into a modern and economically sound state. Cavour's aims were to bring Northern Italy under Sardinia's control, and to show Piedmont as a serious power - e.g. he entered troops in the Crimean War. He was not really concerned with southern Italy.

Crimean War (1854–1856)
Russia's effort to take advantage of the weakening Ottoman Empire was resisted by France and Britain. This was the first war reported by modern journalistic methods.

Civil War in the United States (1861-1864)
The American Civil War developed due to causes particular to the American experience, but it also reflected the agenda of nation building and nationalism that was so prevalent in Europe.

Russia frees Serfs (1861)
Tsar Alexander II "the Liberator" (1855-81) is credited the abolition of serfdom in 1861. Russian serfdom had been especially brutal, but Russia's defeat in the Crimean war lead the government to embark on a modernization program that necessitated the ending of serfdom. A crucial mistake was made, which lead to continuing social problems. Unlike in France in 1789, where the peasants got their land freely, and afterwards became a very conservative force in later French society, the Russian peasants they had to pay for the land they got over many decades (the money went to government, which had already compensated the nobles). Serfs seem to have felt this was unfair, but more importantly they could not afford to pay. The result was no or little progress in agricultural technology, and massive social discontent.

Bismarck became chancellor of Prussia (1862)
King William I (1861-1888) had a problem of controlling the Prussian Parliament, so in 1862 he recruited

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) Bismarck, former Prussian ambassador to Russia and France, as Chancellor. Bismarck was the most remarkable political leader of late 19th century. He was the effective ruler of Prussia from 1862, and Germany from 1871, until 1890. In a speech to Parliament 1862, Bismarck argued that Germany would not be united by the liberals who had no power base, but rather by blood and iron. Debates about him: Bismarcks' long tenure in office saw Prussia unite all the other German states except Austria into a new German Empire, a state which was potentially the most powerful in Europe from the moment of its creation in 1871.

Lincoln's "Emancipation Proclamation" (1863)
Lincoln's proclamation freed slaves in the Confederate States (not Union States) but transformed the American Civil War in world opinion from a political into a moral struggle. Often US history is discussed as if it had nothing in common with European events. Although he is not usually thought of in this way, perhaps Abraham Lincoln can be seen alongside figures such as Mazzini and Bismarck in struggling to create a stronger national unity..

Revolt in Poland (1863)
Central Poland had been largely under Russian control since the late 19th century, but this was resisted by the Polish nobility. Following Tsar Alexander I's reforms, rising expectations lead to a major Polish rebellion in 1863. The Russian army was able to suppress the uprising, but not to prevent a continuing surge of nationalist ideas.

Austro-Prussian War (1866)
After 1848 Prussia was strongest state in Germany. If Germany was to be united it would have to be by Prussia, but Austria was still the most prestigious German state. After a war with Denmark 1864 over the territory of Schleswig-Holstein, Prussia becomes leader of Germany and Austrian supporter Prussia. But in 1866, Bismarck turned on Austria and declared war. Victory for Prussia meant Austria gave up its role in Germany, and Bismarck was able to establish a North German Confederation in 1866. It established the structure of Bundesrat and Reichstag which was later used when the Southern German states were added five years later to create the German Empire.