FR322
09140931
The Representation of Women in Three Plays by Olympe de Gouges: La Nécessité du Divorce, Le Couvent ou Les Vœux forcés and La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné
Olympe de Gouges, arguably one of the most influential women of the French Revolution, remains significant in terms of feminism even in the present day. Her provocative and near-parodic response in 1791 to the male-oriented Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen of 1789, the Déclaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne, is emblematic of her consistent challenging of the patriarchal structure of French Revolutionary society. However, it is not solely in her political works that this criticism of existing social structures is evident, but also in her dramatic writings, which were in fact deemed significant enough to contribute to her trial and subsequent execution in 1793. In this light, this essay will examine three plays by Gouges - La Nécessité du Divorce , Le Couvent ou Les Vœux forcés and La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné – in terms of the representation of women therein and its relevance to societal issues. This examination will commence with the concepts of marriage and divorce, continuing with an analysis of religion. The patriarchal family model and ideas of solidarity between women will then be explored, followed by Gouges’ depiction of herself in La France sauvée. Finally, an informed conclusion will assess the cumulative evidence and discuss the significance of these representations.
‘Le marriage est le tombeau de la confiance et de l’amour’[1] declares Olympe de Gouges in the postambule of her Déclaration, asentiment often evident in her dramatic writings. Even going so far as to propose her own, more equal marriage contract, the status of women appears always at the forefront of Gouges’ thinking. Marriage being arguably the defining element of a woman’s life in revolutionary France, it is no surprise that it plays such an influential role in Gouges’ campaign for equality. In terms of the representation of women in these plays, the theme of marriage is almost omnipresent. Married and widowed young herself, Gouges’ refusal to take on the title expected of her – that of ‘Veuve Aubry’ – signifies a nonconformity which is evident throughout her works. In turning away from this label and renaming herself Olympe de Gouges, described by Léopold Lacour as her nom de guerre[2], she claims an autonomy denied to most women of her era. Thus, this idea of female agency is transferred to several characters in her plays.In La Nécessité du Divorce, published in 1790, Madame d’Azinval embodies the married woman. Strong and sensible despite her worries, Madame d’Azinval is one of Gouges’ model women. Although her husband’s behaviour repeatedly upsets and shames her, she deals with the problem in an innovative way. As she considers herself ‘cruellement punie’[3], the character perfectly expresses the pain caused by a spouse’s deplorable actions, which would surely have been familiar to many women in the audience. However, by meeting with Herminie and making an attempt to rectify the situation, Madame d’Azinval takes an active role in improving her own position, a contrast to the passivity commonly expected of women at the time. By depicting the discussion on marriage between Madame d’Azinval and the Abbé Basilic, Gouges highlights the injustices suffered by wives – ‘vous en supportez tous les dommages’[4]- and this condemnation of the oppression of married women is evident throughout the play. Even when surprised by her husband’s eavesdropping, Madame d’Azinval is able to keep her composure and insist ‘votre conduite et non la mienne a contribué à m’exposer àl’humiliation’[5]. This placing of blame firmly on the behaviour of Monsieur d’Azinval suggests that Gouges holds the comportment of men to bethe cause of marital problems; as they have more power and autonomy in the relationship, so they have the freedom to behave badly. Ultimately, Madame d’Azinval’s willingness to forgive her husband rather than divorce him conveys the message that marriages would be more likely to improve and succeed were power shared equally between the spouses. In contrast, the character of Constance provides an example of a woman in a different life stage. Her passivity, naivety and desire to marry, considered typical of young women of the era, are indicative of the sort of young woman Gouges wishes to save from the potential downfalls of traditional marriage. The marriage portrayed in the unfinished La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrônéof 1792 is yet more controversial, in that it is the marriage of the king and queen of France. This illustrates a determination on the part of Olympe de Gouges to break down societal boundaries The queen is depicted as a dominant spouse; her marriage not idyllic, yet not the caricature prevalent in the media at the time. As John Cole asserts, Gouges is singular among her contemporaries for her commitment to women’s rights not only in the public sphere but also within the realm of their private relationships[6]. Her representation of female characters’ experiences of marriage reinforces the views set forth in her own proposed marriage contract and exhibits a desire to end the power monopoly of men in marital relationships. Marriage is not vilified, rather portrayed with unapologetic realism. In this way, Gouges’ hope for future change in the institution of marriage, as outlined in her proposed contract, is apparent.
Inextricably linked to the concept of marriage is that of divorce. Olympe de Gouges, herself a supporter of the campaign to legalise divorce in France, views the proposed change in the law from a woman’s point of view in her treatment of the issue. Without divorce, women were effectively trapped in a marriage until widowed and were therefore in the private sphere confined to a passive existence as wife, rather than an active pursuit of their own interests. In the eyes of Gouges and many of her contemporaries, equality between the sexes should mean a marriage on equal grounds, able to be terminated by either individual. The most relevant of Gouges’ dramatic works to examine in relation to this issue is indisputably La Nécessité du Divorce, a play arguably written specifically to explore the debate surrounding legalisation.The fact that Gouges originally published the play anonymously testifies to the controversy surrounding the debates. In her depiction of the d’Azinvals’ unhappy situation, Gouges introduces the audience to the inherent problems she sees in marriage without the option of divorce. Madame d’Azinval is presented as suppressed by her lack of power within her marriage and in this way the potential advantages of divorce come to light.. Despite his being a man, the character of Rosambert remains extremely pertinent to women’s issues throughout the play as he frequently serves as a platform for the myriad arguments in favour of divorce. Indeed, his observation that marriage leads to ‘la corruption de la société’[7] supports the view that marriage can only truly be equal and successful when the option of divorce is provided. In portraying his taking action to improve the situation of Madame d’Azinval, Gouges creates a blueprint for cooperation between the genders.His well-intentioned lie regarding legalisation reveals the potential opportunity therein for women to hold power in a relationship on a par with that of their male counterparts. Acting again as Gouges’ mouthpiece, Rosambert’s reference to ‘toutes les femmes esclaves’[8] makes clear her view of women’s position in the private sphere. Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of the finale is Gouges’ decision to portray Madame d’Azinval as forgiving towards her spouse rather than vindictive. By demonstrating how access to divorce could in fact improve a marriage, Gouges cleverly avoids overly radical arguments which could potentially alienate some audiences. However, commitment to the practicality of legalisation in terms of a move towards gender equality still remains at the forefront of the plot. The same sentiment is evident in the suggestion, made in Gouges’ own alternative marriage contract, that the marriage last simply ‘pour la durée de nos penchants mutuels’[9], an approach clearly aimed at ending the suffering of those fettered by unhappy unions. Through her representation of Madame d’Azinval’s experience, Gouges demonstrates how the option to divorce would be an equalising influence on the institution of marriage, as as the imminent threat of losing his wife forces Monsieur d’Azinval to instantly change his behaviour towards her. In short, Gouges evidently perceives dicvorce as an opportunity to end the subordination of women in their private relationships in a society in which a married woman was still very much under the control of her husband. Through her representation of the injustices suffered by married women Gouges brings focus to the idea that divorce, eventually legalised in 1792, represents a vital step towards agency and autonomy for the French woman as she is no longer entirely bound by the constraints of a patriarchal and religion-based institution.
Religion, as it relates to women’s issues, is another controversial subject explored by Olympe de Gouges throughout her writings, with religious characters a mainstay of many of her dramatic works. As a result of the dechristianisation campaigns of the revolution, the furore surrounding the future of the church pervaded all levels of society and was considered controversialto the extent that Gouges struggled to have her play Le Couvent ou Les Vœux forcés performed upon its completion in 1790. The dissolution of religious orders of 1790, coupled with the practice of families sending unmarried or widowed women - often unwillingly - into a life of religious service as a nun, evidently inspired Gouges to create this account of corruption in both the church and the patriarchal family structure. It is through the character of Julie that Gouges criticises most harshlythe archaic custom of sending husbandless women to convents. Drawing parallels with the plight of Suzanne in Diderot’s La Religieuse (which, although extremely comparable, was in fact published 30 years later), Julie’s fate represents a very real possibility for many French women of the pre-revolutionary era. Julie and her mother Angelique, having been locked up by the Marquis, have been robbed of their freedom and autonomy by a man exerting his patriarchal control. Julie is also another example of a woman willing to rebel against subordination; she is described as posessing an ‘âme de tigre’[10] and willing to fight against her oppressors, in this case both the Marquis and the church. By portraying Julie as not only resilient but also selfless, as she assents to take the vows only to prevent harm coming to others, Gouges creates a character who represents a more ideal woman. It is significant that Julie does not ask to be removed from the convent, merely for the choice to delay her vows. In this way, Gouges draws attention to the importance of choice in the convent system. Indeed, choice is a vital concept in Gouges’ hope for women, as many of the changes she proposes in her political writings centre on giving women options – such as that to divorce one’s husband. In her exclamation ‘oublier mes devoirs! non, jamais’[11], Julie demonstrates her commitment to the duties expected of her. In this, and in Julie’s refusal to allow her feelings for the Chevalier to sway her into rash behaviour, Gouges represents a woman with a strong moral backbone. Instead of portraying Julie as truly rebelling against the church, Gouges’ decision to show her suffering even in acceptance of her fate provides a far more powerful criticism of women’s oppression by a religious institutions. Furthermore, Julie’s willingness to sacrifice her own happiness by taking her vows in order to protect others serves the dual purpose of both highlighting the character’s bravery and drawing the attention of the audience to the futility of forcing women into convents. This representation is echoed in the confession by the Abbess that Julie’s dissention has made others restless, suggesting that the flaws in the system are apparent even to those who exist within it. Perhaps the most powerful choice of words is to be found in the Abbess’ declaration that ‘le plus pressant c’est de réduire Julie’[12] . The idea that, in taking her vows, Julie will literally be reduced to less than the young woman she was is indicative of the absolute control exerted by the church over these women. Similarly, Gouges employs the situation faced by Julie’s mother Angelique in order to denounce convent customs. Presented as yet more tragic than the fate of Julie, her obligation to become a nun at the hands of a tyrannical brother is an opportunity for Gouges to confront the audience with the brutal reality of this practice. Hers are the true vœuxforcés of the title, as despite the final reconciliation she must remain bound to the convent. The silencing and confinement of Angelique serves as a metaphor for the silencing of women as a gender. Just as Angelique’s situation is only resolved once she breaks free to speak, so women’s situation cannot be improved until they break free of societal boundaries and speak out.
In contrast, the character of the Abbess is employed by Gouges to symbolise thedetrimental effects of confining women to the environment of the convent against their will. Risen to despotic power within the community, Gouges depicts her as both manipulative of Julie, entreating her to ‘vous enchaînerez pour toujours’[13], and deferent to men. Despite her supposed power in the convent, the Abbess remains subordinate to male figures in the play, representing the fact that women are forever doomed to be second-class citizens in the traditional patriarchy of the Catholic Church. In her silencing of Angelique, the Abbess exemplifies the harm done when women fail to support each other. This corruption within a religion whose tenets are supposedly kindness, benevolence and selflessness makes evident Gouges’ despair for the direction taken by the church community with regards to women. The characters of the Curé and the Grande-Vicaire support this analysis, as they represent the two different sides of contemporary religious views on women – the Curé embodying a new, progressive and sympathetic attitude whereas the Grande-Vicaire personifies the oppression of the traditional, Ancien Régime church. By the same token, Gouges alludes to the debate over the dissolution of religious orders several times during the play. The scene in which Soeur Agathe and Soeur Félicité discuss their potential fortunes if their life in the convent should end raises the real question of what dissolution would mean for many nuns in a practical sense. Although popular culture of the time imagines the nun as young and beautiful, the worries of the two women that they will be liberated ‘après nous avoir passé les plus belles années de notre jeunesse’[14]highlights the reality: that many nuns were older women who would have trouble readjusting to life outside the convent. A dissatisfaction with society’s dismissal of older women as useless is evident in her treatment of the nuns’ anxiety. However, the fact that they do not appear to be without hope, as each reassures the other of her beauty, suggests an inherent optimism and a differing attitude to that seen in the Abbess, who foretells ‘nous toucherons à la fin du monde’[15]. On balance, through her representation of female characters in Le Couvent, Olympe de Gouges comments on the impact exerted by the church on women. Relevant to contemporary politics of the time in its treatment of the dispute over dissolution, the play not only portrays the victim and oppressor but also a potential way forward for the church in the character of the fair and progressive Curé. Despite her condemnation of the Church’s treatment of women, Gouges at no point strays into heresy; she does not denounce religion itself but merely its outdated and misogynistic practices. The ultra-patriarchal organisation of the church represented in Le Couvent can indeed be interpreted as a microcosm of society as a whole as the repression of women in the play epitomises all which Gouges strives to overthrow. The church represents merely one facet of the patriarchal aim to keep all women either married or in a convent,and a primary aim of Gouges’ dramatic and political writing is the provision of a third route for women, in which they are free to act as subjects in their own right.
A frequent manifestation of patriarchal structures in Olympe de Gouges’ dramatic works is to be found in her portrayal of family dynamics. Women in Gouges’ plays are often seen in thrall to husbands, brothers, fathers, as it is perennially the male family members who are dominant. Having freed herself from these constraints by refusing to take a widow’s title or remarry, Gouges evidently wishes to claim this same agency for other women under male control. In Le Couvent, the audience is presented with a classic example of women under the command of male family members. By portraying the tragic situation of Julie and Angelique at the hands of the tyrannical and all-controlling Marquis, Gouges highlights the injustice of their lack of power. In addition, Angelique’s ability to resolve the situation by speaking out against her domineering brother sends the message that these familial tyrants need to be overthrown in order for women’s standing to improve. However, the play still serves as a warning to women due to Angelique’s lack of an escape route from the convent. In this way, Gouges emphasises the damage already done to women and the eventual repentance of the Marquis further encourages the audience to view his crimes as reprehensible. Thus the play as a whole functions as something of a cautionary tale, as Gouges illustrates both the harm done to women by this family hierarchy and the possibility of a more harmonious future with its removal. Similarly, in La Nécessité du Divorce, the audience is again confronted with two women paralysed by the influence of men in their private lives, both of which are resolved following a change in male behaviour. Madame d’Azinval, enduring a despairing existence due to an indifferent husband who provides ‘bien du chagrin à sa femme’[16] lives in a state of limbo. Neither independent nor desired by her husband, the unenviable situation of this character illustrates the damaging effects of such a power imbalance. Through Rosambert’s ruse, Gouges provides an example of the advantages of this potential redistribution of male power. In her advocation of legalisation of divorce, therefore, Gouges supports not only the right of the couple to separate, but the right of women to claim power in the family dynamic on an equal basis to men.The character of Constance, however, presents a different aspect of this patriarchal dominance. Denied the right to marry Germeuil as a result of Rosambert’s control over him, Constance is without agency or control over her own future. The fact that Rosambert’s influence is over another man further emphasises Gouges’ denunciation of these family hierarchies, as even an autonomous male character cannot escape the control of a patriarch. As Constance is only free to be happy once Rosambert relinquishes his hold on Germeuil and assents to the marriage, Gouges underlines the possibility of a harmonious future without this domination. Indeed, this issue is all the more pertinent given the reliance of many young women of the era on their fathers to assent to, or even choose, their future spouse. In any case, almost every aspect of a woman’s life in revolutionary France is defined in relation to the men around her. By representing the struggles of the female characters in her dramatic writings, Olympe de Gouges draws attention to the injustice of female suffering in the family sphere. A lifelong advocate of rights for women in all aspects of life, only by presenting examples of such oppression could Gouges hope to rouse public opinion and effect any kind of change. Possessing a unique vantage point due to her own uncommon position as an unfettered woman, Gouges is more able to critique the subordination of her own gender.