Study Grant Application

“The Social Protection of Children: A Cross-National Comparison”

Spring 2008

Debbie White

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The Social Protection of Children: A Cross-National Comparison

Proposal and Study Plan

But soon a milder age will follow.

An age of truer wisdom.

Then the careful state will spare her child

-Johann Friedrich Von Schiller, Don Carlos

Unfortunately, even a cursory glance at current data on child maltreatment clearly indicates the world has not yet entered this “milder age of truer wisdom”. Indeed, present-day circumstances likely contribute to the persistence of this sad state of affairs.

Living in a fast-paced world that has become more industrialized and globally interdependent has its costs. Stress levels increase dramatically and pose difficulties for all the major institutions of society, but perhaps the problems associated with raising children in an increasingly competitive marketplace are the most severe.Citizens insome nations, such as Japan and, to a certain extent, the United States, have reacted to this stress by delaying marriage and having fewer children. This, in turn, has become such a problem in Japan that the government has responded with pro-family initiatives such as a national family day in order to reinforce the value of family and procreation. If these initiatives are successful and birth rates begin to rise, what fate awaits these children? Will they become, at best, a financial liability, or worse, will they become an unwanted inconvenience and object of maltreatment?

The focus of this study grant is child maltreatment and the various social policies that dictate its institutional response. Iwill examine this topic both nationally and cross-nationally. In each case, I shall examine the various types of maltreatment, their changing definitions and institutional responses as well as the historical development of child maltreatment policy in the United States. The types of maltreatment considered will be neglect, physical and sexual abuse, as well as other types of exploitation of children including their use as slaves, laborers, or soldiers.

Social protection of children, defined as an institutional response to child maltreatment, has a rather short and tenuous history in the United States. The idea that the protection of children should be a responsibility of government was not even considered until the late nineteenth century. Child maltreatment was not defined as a social problem in the United States until the 1870s when intervention was provided, ironically, by the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. This interest in protecting children waned after a few years and did not reemerge until the 1960s. One goal of this study grant is to identify some of the social forces that account for this waning and waxing of interest in the social protection of children in the U.S.

A second goal is to examine the inconsistencies and conceptual confusion that surround the problem-area and assess their consequences for social policy. The definition of maltreatment, for example, has undergone many revisions over time. Currently, child maltreatment is defined by both federal and state laws. The federal legislation specifies the minimum standards states must incorporate into the definition of child maltreatment as it applies to state statutes. However, a cursory glance at state statutes indicates there is a great deal of variation between states in terms of not only the way it is defined, but also the legal requirements for reporting suspected maltreatment. For example, neither Georgia nor Washington includes emotional abuse in their definition of child maltreatment and only about 30 states include child abandonment. States vary as well in their definitions of the age of consent for sexuality. While most states define the age of consent as 16, 17, or 18, this can vary widely as in some states the age of consent for females is lower than for males. All this variation further confounds the problem of inconsistency and conceptual confusion that exists between states in terms of the social protection of children.

Inconsistencies are also apparent in the statutory identification of “mandatory reporters,” individuals who are required by law to report suspected cases of child abuse and neglect. Most states identify school personnel, social workers, health care and mental health professionals, child care providers, law enforcement officers and medical examiners/coroners as mandatory reporters. However, about half of the states also include clergy as mandatory reporters and approximately 18 states include anyone who suspects child maltreatment as mandatory reporters.

Given these inconsistencies, a series of questions must be addressed: What social and cultural factors affect the way that child maltreatment is defined in the various settings in which it is found? Or, put another way, how has the concept of child maltreatment been “socially constructed” over time? How, then, do social and cultural factors affect the design, implementation, and success of programs aimed at reducing the extent to which child maltreatment exists in the world?

On a more practical level, one is compelled to ask: does the U.S. do a reasonable job protecting children? How do U.S. efforts compare to those of other countries? What differences exist in the definitions of maltreatment? Are some types emphasized more than others? What is the institutional response to child maltreatment and who are considered mandatory reporters?

Sociology is an extremely broad discipline which is interdisciplinary in nature and covers a wide variety of topics which, in general, affect the quality of life within a society. Topics such as culture, crime and punishment, racial and ethnic relations, educational and political systems, religion, and family and community concerns are the mainstay of this discipline. While all of these topical areas are relevant to the lives of our students, problems of the family appear to consistently be among those which generate the most interest. However, given the breadth and depth of the topics covered in a sociology course professors are rarely able to become knowledgeable in many of their sub-topics, such as child maltreatment as it relates to the social institution of the family.

While a global perspective is not a requirement, I have taught sociology from a global perspective for the last few years and find that students are increasingly interested in a cross-national comparison of social problems. In our examination of the social problems related to family, I have found child abuse to be an area of heightened interest. This study grant will allow me to go beyond a cursory discussion of the topic that currently includes, primarily, the incidence of child abuse and some of the social forces that have been identified as contributing factors. This study grant would also afford me the time and support necessary to expand this query and answer recurring student questions such as: How do the various states define abuse? What is considered child abuse in other countries? How does we compare to other countries in terms of incidence? How do they deal with this problem? Is abuse worse in developing or developed countries?

This study will, of necessity, be multi-disciplinary in nature. In order to examine these issues the reading will be composed of books and articles from peer-reviewed journals as well as government documents and will examine information from the fields of sociology, psychology, social work, history, nursing, pediatric medicine, law, criminal justice, and education and perhaps othersas I gain more knowledge on the topic.

This study of child maltreatment will benefit my teaching by allowing me to gain more in-depth knowledge in the area of family issues. I can use this knowledge to increase student awareness and knowledge in regard to this important and timely topic.

Proposed Plan of Study

Proposed Study Plan – Bibliography

I will break the fifteen-week study grant period into three equal segments with each devoted to a particular set of concerns. Given the complexity of the topic and breadth of work in this area, I have chosen to include a large number of scholarly articles. As a result, in addition to full-length monographs I will also read a number of articles drawn from the many disciplines which include child maltreatment as a topic of study.

Weeks 1-5

Examine the social construction of the concept of child maltreatment and the inconsistencies and conceptual confusion that surround it. Examine the development of social policies with regard to child maltreatment. Explore the cultural and historical processes that account for the apparent “waxing and waning” of U.S. commitment to the social protection of children.

Historical Overview

I will begin by reading an article about the work of Auguste Ambroise Tardieu (1818-1879), the pre-eminent French forensic pathologist who is widely recognized to have created the concept of “battered child syndrome” (also known as “Tardieu’s Syndrome).

  • Labb, Jean (2005). Ambroise Tardieu: The man and his work on child maltreatment a century before Kempe. Child Abuse & Neglect; 29 (4) 311-324.

C. Henry Kempe, founder of the international journal Child Abuse and Neglect, was the first to call attention to battered child syndrome in the U.S. To see how this concept was introduced in the U.S. and how it has evolved over time I will read his original work and then scan the four editions of his classic text.

  • Kempe, C.H., Silverman, F.N. and Steele, B.F. (1962) The battered child syndrome Journal of the American Medical Association, 181, 17-24.
  • Kempe, C. Henry and Ray E. Helfer, editors. (1968) The Battered Child. 1st edition. Chicago: Chicago University Press
  • Kempe,C. Henry and Ray E. Helfer, editors. (1974) The Battered Child. 2nd edition. Chicago: Chicago University Press
  • Kempe, C. Henry and Ray E. Helfer, editors. (1987) The Battered Child. 4th edition. Chicago: Chicago University Press
  • Helfer, M. E., R. Kempe, and R. Krugman, editors. (1997) The Battered Child. 5th edition. Chicago: Chicago University Press

Definitions and Measurement of Child Maltreatment

  • D'Cruz, H. (2004). The Social Construction of Child Maltreatment: The Role of Medical Practitioners. Journal of Social Work, 4(1), 99-123.
  • Dubowitz, Howard, Pitts, Steven C., and Black, Maureen M. (2004). Measurement of Three Major Subtypes of Child Neglect. Child Maltreatment, 9 (4), 344-356.
  • Herrenkohl, Roy C (2005). The definition of child maltreatment: From case study to construct. Child Abuse & Neglect. 29 (5), 413-424.
  • Manly, Jody Todd (2005). Advances in research definitions of child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29 (5), 425-439.
  • Stowman, Stephanie A. and Donohue, Brad (2005). Assessing child neglect: A review of standardized measures. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 10 (4), 491-512.
  • Straus, Murray A. and Kantor, Glenda Kaufman (2005). Definition and measurement of neglectful behavior: some principles and guidelines. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29 (1), 19-29.
  • Suprina, Joffrey S. and Chang, Catherine Y (2005). Child Abuse, Society, and Individual Psychology: What's Power Got to Do with It? Journal of Individual Psychology, 61 Issue (3), 250-268.

Incidence of Child Maltreatment

  • Finkelhor, D., & Jones, L. (2006). Why Have Child Maltreatment and Child Victimization Declined?. Journal of Social Issues, 62(4), 685-716.
  • Jones, L., Finkelhor, D., & Halter, S. (2006). Child Maltreatment Trends in the 1990s: Why Does Neglect Differ From Sexual and Physical Abuse?. Child Maltreatment, 11(2), 107-120.
  • Ulrich, Clare (2005) Archive Provides Scholars with Data on Child Abuse. Human Ecology, 32 (3)12-15.

Social Policies & Prevention: Models, Successes and Failures

  • Bottoms, B., & Quas, J. (2006). Recent Advances and New Challenges in Child Maltreatment Research, Practice, and Policy: Previewing the Issues. Journal of Social Issues, 62(4), 653-662.
  • Cicchetti, Dante (2004). An Odyssey of Discovery: Lessons Learned Through Three Decades of Research on Child Maltreatment. American Psychologist; 59 (8) 731-741.
  • Dorne, Clifford K. (1997). Child Maltreatment: A Primer in History, Public Policy, and Research 2nd ed. Albany: Harrow and Heston.
  • Dubowitz, Howard, Newton, Rae R., Litrownik, Alan J. et al. (2005). Examination of a Conceptual Model of Child Neglect. Child Maltreatment, 10 (2), 173-189
  • Edleson, J., Daro, D., & Pinderhughes, H. (2004). Finding a Common Agenda for Preventing Child Maltreatment, Youth Violence, and Domestic Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(3), 279-281.
  • Ferguson, Harry (2004). Protecting Children in Time: Child Abuse, Child Protection and the Consequences of Modernity. Palgrave MacMillan.
  • Freisthier, B., Merritt, D., & Lascala, E. (2006). Understanding the Ecology of Child Maltreatment: A Review of the Literature and Directions for Future Research. Child Maltreatment, 11(3), 263-280.
  • Hammond, W., Whitaker, D., Lutzker, J., Mercy, J., & Chin, P. (2006). Setting a violence prevention agenda at the centers for disease control and prevention. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 11(2), 112-119.
  • Portwood, S. (2006). What We Know -- and Don't Know -- About Preventing Child Maltreatment. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 12(3/4), 55-80.
  • Portwood, Sharon G. and Dodgen, Daniel W (2005). Influencing Policymaking for Maltreated Children and Their Families. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34 (4), 628-637
  • Toth, S., & Cicchetti, D. (2006). Promises and Possibilities: The Application of Research in the Area of Child Maltreatment to Policies and Practices. Journal of Social Issues, 62(4), 863-880.
  • Whitaker, Daniel J., Lutzker, John R. and Shelley, Gene A. (2005). Child Maltreatment Prevention Priorities at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Child Maltreatment, 10 (3), 245-259.

Weeks 6-10

Explore the institutional response to child maltreatment in the U.S. Examine the role of social institutions in response to current policy and the inconsistencies and conceptual confusion that negatively affect efforts to combat the problem of child maltreatment in the United States. I will begin with the following general readings on this topic then move the inquiry into specific institutional areas.

  • Alvarez, Krisann M., Donohue, Brad, Kenny, Maureen C. et al. (2005). The process and consequences of reporting child maltreatment: A brief overview for professionals in the mental health field. Aggression & Violent Behavior; 10 (3), 311-331.
  • Alvarez, Krisann M., Kenny, Maureen C., Donohue, Brad and Carpin, Kimberly M. (2004). Why Are Professionals Failing to Initiate Mandated Reports of Child Maltreatment, and Are There Any Empirically Based Training Programs to Assist Professionals in the Reporting Process? Aggression & Violent Behavior, 9 (5) 563-578.
  • Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect: Summary of State Laws. Child Welfare Information Gateway. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at
  • Gracia, E., & Herrero, J. (2006). Perceived neighborhood social disorder and residents attitudes toward reporting child physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30(4), 357-365.
  • McDaniel, M. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: The role of reporters in bringing families to the attention of child protective services. Children & Youth Services Review, 28(3), 306-324.

Child Welfare

  • Berrick, J., Frame, L., Langs, J., & Varchol, L. (2006). Working Together for Children and Families: Where TANF and Child Welfare Meet. Journal of Policy Practice, 5(2/3), 27-42.
  • Hochstadt, N. Child Death Review Teams: A Vital Component of Child Protection. Child Welfare, 85(4), 653-670.
  • Peddle, N, Wang, CT, Diaz J. and Reid, R. (2002). Current Trends in Child Abuse Reporting and Fatalities: The 2000 50 State Survey. Chicago, Ill: Prevent Child Abuse America: 2002.
  • Runyan, Desmond K., Cox, Christine E., Dubowitz, Howard et al. (2005) Describing maltreatment: Do child protective service reports and research definitions agree?

Child Abuse & Neglect, 29 (5), 461-477.

  • Whitney, S., Tajima, E., Herrenkohl, T., & Huang, B. (2006). Defining child abuse: Exploring variations in ratings of discipline severity among child welfare practitioners. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 23(3), 316-342.

Education/Schools

  • Kenny, Maureen C. (2004). Teachers' attitudes toward and knowledge of child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28 (12), 1311-1319.
  • National Association of School Nurses. Position statement on child abuse and neglect. Available at: Accessed January 13, 2007
  • Smith, M. (2006). What do university students who will work professionally with children know about maltreatment and mandated reporting?. Children & Youth Services Review, 28(8), 906-926.
  • VanBergeijk, Ernst and Sarmiento, Teresa (2005). On the Border of Disorder: School Personnel's Experiences Reporting Child Abuse on the U.S.-Mexico Border. Brief Treatment & Crisis Intervention, 5 (2) 159-185.

Health Care

  • Giardino, A., Montoya, L., & Leventhal, J. (2004). Financing medically-oriented child protection teams in the age of managed health care: a national survey. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(1), 25.
  • Reece, Robert M. and Jenny, Carole (2005). Medical Training in Child Maltreatment.

American Journal of Preventive Medicine,29 (5) 266-271.

  • Runyan, Carol W, Gunther-Mohr, Carol and Orton, Stephen et al. al. Prevent: A Program of the National Training Initiative on Injury and Violence Prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Supplement 2, Vol. 29, 252-258.
  • Starling, S., & Boos, S. (2003). Core Content for Residency Training in Child Abuse and Neglect. Child Maltreatment, 8(4), 242.
  • Vandeven, A. (2006). Update on child physical abuse, sexual abuse, and prevention. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 18(2), 201-205.
  • Ward, Michelle G.K., Bennett, Susan, Plint, Amy C. et al. (2004). Child protection: a neglected area of pediatric residency training. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28 (10), 1113-1122.

Law/ Law Enforcement

  • Cross, Theodore P., Finkelhor, David and Ormrod, Richard (2005). Police involvement in Child Protective Services Investigations: Literature Review and Secondary Data Analysis. Child Maltreatment, 10 (3), 224-244.
  • Levesque, R. (2000). Cultural Evidence, Child Maltreatment, and the Law. Child Maltreatment, 5(2), 146.
  • Portwood, S., Grady, M., & Dutton, S. (2000). Enhancing Law Enforcement and Identification and Investigation of Child Maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(2), 195-207.
  • Rodriguez-Srednicki, Ofelia and Twaite, James A. (2004) Understanding and reporting child abuse: legal and psychological perspectives. Part one: physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect. Journal of Psychiatry & Law. 32 (3), 315-359.

Weeks 11-15

Goal: Explore cross-national comparisons in terms of definitions of maltreatment and institutional responses to the problem. I will begin by reading the most current and comprehensive work to date on world perspectives on the issue of child abuse, World Perspectives on Child Abuse Seventh Edition (2006) by Deborah Daro. This publication provides information on the state of child maltreatment policy and practice in over 70 countries. Dr. Daro is a research fellow at the Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago and has over twenty years experience in evaluating child abuse treatment and prevention programs.

Then for a general overview of the effect of culture:

  • Elliott, K., & Urquiza, A. (2006). Ethnicity, Culture, and Child Maltreatment. Journal of Social Issues, 62(4), 787-809.
  • Haj-yahia, M. (2000). Child maltreatment. International Social Work, 43(2), 149-162.
  • Sternberg, K.J. (1993). Child maltreatment: Implications for policy from cross-cultural research. In D. Cicchetti and S.L. Toth (Eds), Child Abuse, Child Development, and Social Policy, Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Then I will focus on the following geographical and cultural areas: