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11.02 Notes Outline
“The Fight for Freedom”
Complete 11.02 Notes Outline as you review lesson 11.02.
Explore #2: Analyze the photo.
What is happening in the photo?
Why are people pouring food and drinks on those sitting at the counter?
Why aren’t the people sitting at the counter responding?
How do you think you would react?
I. The Struggle for Freedom
The struggles and triumphs of the 1950s segregation battles inspired a generation of young people to become politically and socially active in the 1960s. Although not all white college students were sympathetic to the black struggle for equality, many were, and actively participated alongside black friends in their fight to end segregation. Some participated in "sit-ins" at lunch counters to desegregate restaurants that were only open to whites for service. Others joined "Freedom Rides" to test desegregation orders regarding interstate travel. Resistance to these non-violent activities was often strong and sometimes brutal. Protesters nonetheless endured the threats and violence in an attempt to ensure equal treatment for all.
Sit-ins Challenge Segregation
were a form of protest used to draw attention to segregation in public places in which protestors sat themselves in segregated places, usually lunch counters, and refused to move until they were served or removed by force.
In 1961 some 70,000 students participated in sit-ins throughout the South; 3,600 of those who participated in sit-ins were arrested. Participants refused to back down from their principles of non-violent resistance even when faced with humiliation, beatings, suspension from college, and arrests.
The Greensboro Sit-ins
In 1960, eating lunch at a lunch counter was a privilege that only white patrons enjoyed in segregated restaurants across the United States. That same year, four African American college freshmen decided to challenge this form of segregation by sitting down in the white-only section of a local diner in Greensboro, North Carolina and refusing to leave. The sit-in continued for weeks and eventually spread to over 50,000 students in every southern state.
Nashville Sit-ins
Students in Nashville, Tennessee, were attacked and arrested for disorderly conduct even though they refused to fight back. Diane Nash led 3,000 protestors on the first freedom rights march to demand that diners and the seating areas be desegregated.
Freedom Rides
In 1961, CORE organized to test the compliance of southern states to the court order mandating bus integration on interstate travel. The group of "Freedom Riders" started in Washington, D.C., and traveled peacefully with only minor skirmishes until they reached violence and angry mobs in Alabama.
In , a heavily armed mob attacked the riders and firebombed one of the buses. The Freedom Riders also faced violent mob attacks in Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama.
Governorrefused to offer protection to the riders; therefore, President Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders as they continued their journey.
The degree of violence inflicted on the riders in Alabama shocked the nation.
Freedom rides were organized to test the Deep South's compliance of the Supreme Court ruling barring interstate segregated travel. The riders were attacked, and the Kennedy administration was forced to confront the issue of morality nationally.
II. Integration of Southern Universities
Nearly a decade after the Brown decision, Southern universities continued to struggle with desegregation. Opposition was fierce and at times brutal. The Governor and surrounding community vehemently opposed integration of African-American students. They tried desperately to prevent acceptance at the University of Mississippi and the University of Alabama.
In the fall of 1962, , an Air Force veteran, attempted to enroll at the University of Mississippi after winning a federal court case.
Violence in Mississippi
A large mob crowd gathered as personally blocked the entrance way to the admissions office at . Riots ensued and blood was shed. Despite the protests, James Meredith was finally enrolled on October 1, 1962. He had to be escorted by federal forces through a mob of thousands taunting him. Two people were killed in the riots.
Following the integration of Ole Miss, tensions were high in Mississippi. As was the case in Little Rock, the President was forced to intervene after a standoff with the Governor. Kennedy sent over 31,000 troops to guard Meredith and restore order.
In 1963, , who was vital to Meredith's enrollment at Ole Miss and had worked tirelessly for nearly a decade to desegregate public facilities in Mississippi, was martyred for his beliefs.
The murder of Medgar Evers shocked the nation and further helped propel the country towards a civil rights act.
Integration at the University of Alabama
In 1956, prior to events at Ole Miss, integration had been attempted at the University of Alabama. was officially enrolled and attended classes for three days; however, her presence on campus worried school officials. The Board of Trustees subsequently voted to expel her from campus for "her own safety."
In 1963 integration was attempted again by and .
blocked the entrance to the admission office to visibly demonstrate to the nation his opposition to integration at the .
Governor Wallace's now infamous "" was only symbolic because he had already reached a deal with President Kennedy to admit the two students without violence.
III. Birmingham
Showdown in Birmingham, April 1963
During the spring of 1963 the nation turned its attention to , a city Dr. King called, "the most in American." It proved to be a tough, but momentous fight for the civil rights leaders. The white community provided a determined resistance to the protests. In the end, it was the involvement of the city's children that garnered the much needed attention and support for the Birmingham cause.
Birmingham Resistance
The head of the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights, in Birmingham, , asked Dr. King to visit the city in April 1963. Dr. King and the SCLC planned to hold numerous marches and protests to force integration at the workplace, shopping locales, and lunch counters. The movement was nicknamed "."
The protests began nonviolently with marches and sit-ins; however, when city officials declared the marches violated regulation, the Birmingham police commissioner, , made it clear that he had, "plenty of room in the jail."
Following the arrest of himself and other protestors, Dr. King wrote his famous, “Letter from a Birmingham Jail."
The Children’s March
Dr. King decided to allow children to join the campaign to draw the media; attention was needed to help generate widespread support and pressure for integration in Birmingham. The escalated the city's response to the protests.
"Bull" Conner arrested more than 900 children. Once the city's jails were overwhelmed by the children, police dogs and fire hoses were used on the marchers. The horrific scenes of children under attack were caught on film and seen on television throughout the nation. Within days the world openly criticized the brutal acts of Birmingham.
Pressure from the protests eventually forced city leaders to end segregation. More importantly, the acts in Birmingham inspired strong support for a civil rights act that would end segregation everywhere in the United States.
George Wallace was the new arch villain from the south and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. had designed Project C to provoke confrontations.
African American Entrepreneurs
Birmingham businessman, , one of the wealthiest African-Americans in the nation during the Civil Rights era, made his fortune providing services to the African-American community that white businesses in the segregated South would not provide. He established a bank, insurance company, funeral home, motel, and many other enterprises during his career. Gaston preferred behind-the-scenes support for integration. During the first attempt at integration at the University of Alabama, Gaston provided Autherine Lucy with a car and financial aid. When Dr. King was arrested in Birmingham, Gaston paid his bail of $160,000 using his own personal money. The leaders of the Birmingham crusade utilized his motel space, making it a target for bombing. His work to negotiate desegregation with the white community often put him at odds with other civil rights leaders, but his courageous support helped ensure the overall success of the movement.
Along with Gaston, , another wealthy African-American businessman, tried to organize an effort to purchase the bus company during the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Fuller stressed the need for blacks to go into business because "wherever there is capitalism there is freedom."
Sixteenth Street Baptist Church Bombing
Several months after the Children's March, violence in Birmingham climaxed. On Sunday morning, September 15, 1963, were killed in a bombing at .
Klansmen bombed the church because of its role in the Birmingham movement. The tragic bombing thrust the city once again onto the world stage, earning it the nickname, "bombingham," while further solidifying support for the Civil Rights Act.