Challenging Students to Think Critically 1
THE CHALLENGE: CHALLENGING STUDENTS TO THINK CRITICALLY
Except where reference is made to the works of others, the work described in this thesis is my own or was done in collaboration with my Thesis Chair. This thesis does not include proprietary or classified information
Shomari Zachary
Certificate of Approval:
______
Donald R. Livingston, Ed. D.Sharon M. Livingston, Ph. D.
Associate Professor & Thesis Co-ChairAssistant Professor & Thesis Co-Chair
Education DepartmentEducation Department
THE CHALLENGE: CHALLENGING STUDENTS TO THINK CRITICALLY
A thesis submitted
by
Shomari Naeem Zachary
to
LaGrangeCollege
in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the
degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in
Curriculum and Instruction
LaGrange, Georgia
July 25, 2011
Abstract
The topic of critical thinking has received much attention lately and many
colleges and professional jobs are now calling for students who possess critical thinking
skills.However, many teachers have failed to incorporate critical thinking into their
instructional goals. The purpose of this action research study was to determine if the
implementation of critical thinking would improve academic achievement. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Pre-test and post-test scores of a control group and treatment group were used along with an instructional plan, reflective journal, and a student survey. Although, assessment data showed that critical thinking did not improve students’ academic achievement in a statistical manner, qualitative data recorded through the reflective journal showed that students increased their use of critical thinking skills, and increased their ability to make connections, solve problems, and identify key concepts and their relationship to the content and the real world.
Table of Contents
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….iii
Table of Contents …………………………………………………………...... iv
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………….…………….v
Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………….1
Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………..1
Significance of the Problem ……………………………………………………..2
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks ……………………………………….4
Focus Questions …………………………………………………………………7
Overview of Methodology ………………………………………………………8
Human as Researcher ……………………………………………...... 8
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature………………………………………...... 9
Instructional Strategies that Promote Critical Thinking ………………………….9
The Effects and Benefits of Teaching Critical Thinking …………...... 14
Teacher and Student Perceptions about Critical Thinking ……………………...16
Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………………...21
Research Design …………………………………………………………………21
Setting ……………………………………………………………...... 22
Subjects ………………………………………………………………………….22
Procedures and Data Collection Methods ……………………………………….22
Validity,Reliability, Dependability, and Bias………………………………...…26
Analysis of Data …………………………………………………...... 29
Chapter 4: Results ……………………………………………………………………….32
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion of Results
Analysis of Results………………………………………………………...... 40
Discussion …………………………………………………………...... 47
Implications……………………………………………………………………...49
Impact on Student Learning ……………………………………………………..50
Recommendations for Future Research …………………………………………51
References …………………………………………………………………...... 53
Appendixes …………………………………………………………………….……...... 60
List of Tables
Tables
Table 3.1Data Shell………………………………………………………………...22
Table 4.1Independent t-test: Pre Test scores Treatment and Control……………...33
Table 4.2Independent t-test: Post Test scores Treatment and Control…………….34
Table 4.3Dependent t-test Pre/Post Test Treatment………………………………..34
Table 4.4Dependent t-test Pre/Post Test Control…………………………………..35
Table 4.5Survey Data………………………………………………………………39
Challenging Students to Think Critically 1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
There has been much public outcry that curricula and standards across the
nation should be more rigorous and that all students should be held to higher standards
to ensureacademic achievement. Rigor requires that teachers make content and
lessons more challenging and meaningful to the learner. The path by which teachers
should subscribe is often debated, challenged, or criticized, which leads many teachers
to stick with the conventional approach of teaching to the test. The challenge lies in the
fact that rigor requires the use of thinking skills,such as evaluating, analyzing, and
synthesizing to solve problems (Paul, 1990). Teachers’ opinions vary on whether to use
criticalthinking skills or how to incorporate them into the curriculum. As a result,
students lack critical thinking skills and high quality instruction that promotes higher
level thinking. Students mostly receive a great deal of “drill and kill” instruction that
leads to minimum thinking skills and, at best, the ability to recall facts (Janesick, 2004).
Instead of challenging students to think, explore, create, and analyze, teachers train
students to memorize and regurgitate information.Learning in this way is neither fun nor
rewardingfor students. Due to the high stakes testing environment, teachers focus on
teaching content and rely on rote memorization and recall instead of making learning
meaningful and useful to students(Skaggs, 2004).
How can educators expect students to think critically when students have not
been taught how to synthesize, evaluate, analyze information, orgiven the
opportunity to demonstrate their ability to think? There are many issues that confront
teachers and students as it relates to teaching critical thinking skills. For teachers, the
challenge is how to incorporate critical thinking skills into the curriculum; for students,
the challenge is overcoming issues such as socioeconomic status, gender, and race in
order to succeed in school. According to Newmann (1998), teachers must be willing to
make curriculum and instructional decisions that foster students’ abilities to engage in
thinking and interpretation. William-Boyd (2004) stated that “John Dewey contended
that the most crucial need in American society was for students to be taught to reflect
upon what they learned in school” (p. 95).
This study explored and implemented strategies that promoted critical thinking
skills todetermine whether critical thinking skills increased academic achievement.
The research question for this study focused on what strategies teachers could implement
in order to teach critical thinking and improve students’ academics and desire to learn.
Significance of the Problem
Over the last three decades much research has been done concerning the issue
of criticalthinking and its relevance to education and society. Reformers and
researchers have agreed that students who possess critical thinking skills are the key to
America’s continued economic success and dominance (National Commission on
Excellence in Education, 1983).Paul (1990) suggested “we can no longer afford the kind
of schoolingthat at best transforms students into narrow specialists and at worst leaves
them without job skills, functional literacy, or self-confidence” (p. xix). Swanson,
Spencer, and Petersen (1998) echoed reformers and researchers by stating that the
nation’s young people will need a higher level of academic and occupational knowledge
and skills in order to be competitive in the twenty-first century. While research and
reformers are calling for critical thinking skillsschools havefailed to embrace
and incorporatethe ideas of critical thinking into the curriculum.
There is a huge impact when students are not taught how to think critically.
Students are affected both academically and socially. Many students who lack
critical thinking skills struggle academically because they feel that education is irrelevant
or has little value to their personal lives. This causes students to become disengaged and
can lead to a myriad of problems ranging from misbehavior, dropping out, and countless
activities that undermine the fabric of society. Swanson et al. (1998) reported
that many high school graduates from at-risk backgrounds are illiterate and those who
decide to enter college are less likely to graduate. This can be attributed to students not
being prepared for college and lacking the skills to process and analyze information.
Students with low thinking skillsalso find it difficult to complete tasks that require them
to think independentlyoutside of rote memorization and recall. One final note
is thatU.S. students are falling behind other developing countries academically (Paul,
1990).
Students who fail to receive a high school diploma or matriculate into college
face many challenges in their daily life. Jobs now call on individuals to evaluate
problems, analyze and detect trends, and interpret data. Individuals who lack these
skills are often presented with fewer options in life and many times have to accept low
wage jobs.Furthermore, students who have not been taught how to think critically lack
the ability to make rational decisions in their adult life because they fail to examine the
consequences,assumptions, and prejudices of issues that surround them (Paul, 1990). In
order to address these concerns so that all members of society can prepare for the future,
teachers must offer students opportunities to attain content goals through critical thinking.
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
Recent education reforms and national panels have called on American schools
to teach reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking (Newmann, 1992).
However, classrooms across America, especially those filled with at-risk students, fail to
embrace the ideas of constructivism through the use of critical thinking skills.
Constructivismis the idea of constructing knowledge based on experiences and
coming to know one’s world in relation to nature and society ( Brooks, 1999). The idea
of teaching critical thinking skills aligns closely with the components of constructivism.
The use of critical thinking skills allows individuals to detect biases, interpret, analyze
and manipulate information, anticipate and respond to arguments in opposition to
one’s own, and evaluate one’s views clearly and persuasively. Application of these
functions supports the constructivist idea that learners must draw new knowledge from
their experiences.Furthermore, the constructivist idea of active learning is
enhanced by critical thinking skills because students become engaged in cognition skills
rather than performing rituals, routines, and procedures that lack substantive
understanding (Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992).
The basis of social constructivism is to acknowledge the background and
uniqueness of each learner. Students come from various backgrounds that reflect
differences in income, race, gender and culture (Gordon,1999). Research has proven
that socioeconomic status, peer culture, and the quality of individual teachers has a
profound impact on student achievement (Newmann, 1998). Within the confines of
constructivism, teachers must take into account the background and culture of each
learner. Through the use of thinking skills, teachers can promote social interaction that
enables students to become aware of their background and culture, and foster an
environment that embraces the views and experiences of one’s self and others.
The goal of the Education Department of LaGrange College is to develop teachers
who embrace caring and supportive classrooms, foster enthusiastic engagement in
learning and utilize the best teaching practices (LaGrange College Education Department,
2008). This study specifically relates to Tenets 1 and 3 ofLaGrangeCollege
Education Department’sConceptual Framework. Tenet 1 is also closely aligned with
Domain 3 of the Georgia Framework for Teaching.
Tenet One of LaGrange College Education Department’s Conceptual Framework
focuses on the teacher as a professional. Teachers are encouraged to provide learning
environments that foster enjoyment and rigor, and enables students to be actively
involved in the teaching and learning process (LagrangeCollege Education Department,
2008).Additionally, as stated by LaGrangeCollege Education Department (2008),
teachers should build on the abilities, interests, and needs of students in order to create
meaningful curriculum. Domain 3 of the Georgia Framework for teaching focuses on
teachers creating environments that encourage social interaction, active engagement in
learning, and self-motivation (LaGrange College Education Department, 2008). Critical
thinking skills are advantageous for teachers because critical thinking skills provide
teachers and students an opportunity to draw from each individual’s experience and to
explore learning beyond content and subject matter. In order to be successful, teachers
must draw on their experience and knowledge and make connections to the wide array of
students that make up their community of learners. Teachers must also engage students in
critical thinking so that students can interpret the experiences and achievements of their
peers, and analyze how they relate to their own perspectives. Gordon (1999) concluded:
Findings from modern cognitive science suggest that effective learning and the
achievement of understanding result from active engagement with and operation
on the relevant knowledge processes and structures in the interest of constructing
meanings that make sense to the learner. Such engagement and operations are the
vehicles of cognitive development. Because the knowledge processes and
structures are derived from the culture, in properly conceived teaching and
learning transactions, their transmission is a natural concomitant of intellective
development. (p. 73)
Tenet 3 of the Conceptual Framework focuses on teachers providing caring
and supportive classrooms that builds learning communities (LaGrangeCollege
Education Department, 2008). Many teachers have negative dispositions concerning
students and strongly feel that students are incapable of thinking critically. As
a result, teachers continue to take a conventional approach to teaching and students
continue to perform poorly. Teachers must go beyond the conventional approach to
teaching and create lessons that have meaning to students' personal lives. According to
McLaren,teachers should set high expectations for students and “view the world through
anti-racist, multicultural, non-gender biased lenses and advocate for social justice and
equality”(as cited in Lagrange College Education Department, 2008, p. 8).
In order to provide a caring and supportive classroom, teachers have to examine
and reflect on their own experiences and dispositions. In other words, teachers must
become critical thinkers before they can teach students to think critically. In doing so,
teachers become models for their students and guide students to apply the principle of
cultural democracy: the right of every American to relate to his own ethnic, racial, or
social group while exploring mainstreamAmerica (Castaneda, James, & Robbins, 1974).
It is through learning to think critically that we can best deal with problems that face us
individually, as a nation, and as a global community (Hytten, 2004).
This thesis has associative value to core Propositions 1 and 4 of the
National Board for Professional Teachers Standards [NBPTS]. Proposition One of the
NBPTS encourages teachers to commit to students and their learning and to recognize
individual differences in order to embrace cultural differences and enhance peer
relationships.The use of critical thinking skills in the classroom will allow students to
make connections between students of different cultural backgrounds and help students
embrace their role and contribution to society. To capture the fulfillment of Proposition 1
teachers must believe and challenge all students regardless of race and gender to learn at
high levels to ensure academicachievement.
Proposition 4 of NBPTS calls on teachers to be accountable and to examine and
reflect on their use of practices, theories, and knowledge. Teaching critical thinking skills
can be challenging for teachers because it forces teachers to focus beyond the realm of
content and incorporate skills that require time, reflection, and the use of several
instructional strategies. Teachers must be willing to promote the development of critical
thinking skills, design instruction that meets the needs of all learners, model the attitudes
and skills they wish to teach their students, and seek out strategies and professional
development that fosters students’ ability to learn and process information.
Focus Questions
Focus questions are questions that guide the researcher through the process of
collecting and analyzing data, examining related content that provides insight for the
study being conducted, and interpreting the results of a study (Hendricks, 2009). Focus
questions force researchers to construct their own answers and meanings to the problem
at hand (Hendricks, 2009). This study focused on the problem of teachers not teaching
critical thinking skills to students,although a preponderance of research suggest that
critical thinking skills are necessary for student success and survival. There were three
focus questions that guided the research of this study. The first question was what
instructional strategies could teachers use to implement the use of critical thinking skills?
This focus question related to the pedagogical component of research. The second
question this study addressed was how did critical thinking affect student achievement
and behavior? This focus question centered around student learning outcomes. The last
question this study attempted to answer was what attitudes and dispositions did students
and teachers exhibit through the use of critical thinking skills?This question connected to
the idea of reflective practice.
Overview of Methodology
The research design of this study was action research. Action research
promotes the use of prior skills and experiences and encourages professionals to reflect
on their practice and improve it. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected to
determine the effectiveness of incorporating critical thinking skills into the curriculum.
Qualitativemethods that wereused by the researcher included an instructional plan
and a reflective journal.Quantitative methods that were used included a survey and a
teacher made test. The setting of this study took place at a suburban high school located
in Decatur, Georgia andconsisted of thirty eight 10th grade world history students. The
duration for this study will be three to four weeks to determine whether the teaching of
critical thinking skills improved the actual use of critical thinking skills and academic
success. One class served as the treatment group while the other class served as the
control group. To ensure that this study focused on validity, reliability, dependability,
and bias both qualitative and quantitative methods were used along with scholarly
research. To determine whether critical thinking skills improved academic achievement,
data was analyzed to determine if there were significant differences between the two
groups and what categorical themes were present.
Human as Researcher
I am a history teacher at ColumbiaHigh School and have taught there for five
years.I hold a Bachelor of Education degree from Georgia Southern University and I am
currently pursuing a Master’s degree in Curriculum and Instruction at LaGrangeCollege.