Supplementary material

The following supplementary material is associated with:

Article title: Balancing dingo conservation with human safety on Fraser Island: the numerical and demographic effects of humane destruction of dingoes

Journal: Australasian Journal of Environmental Management

Corresponding author: Benjamin Allen, The University of Queensland (email: )

Contents:

·  Table S1

·  Table S2

·  Figure S1

·  References

·  Humane destruction database

Table S1 – Selected first-hand observations of dingo breeding and social ecology on Fraser Island

Date / Location / Source / Observation
Apr 1995 / Orchid Beach / Paul Fishburn / An alpha male from another pack killed the alpha male of the Waddy Point pack, which then disbanded, and was taken over by the other pack. The victorious male was subsequently seen acting dominantly towards a similar-aged subordinate male of the same pack on a number of occasions. The dominant male was seen limping badly a short time later, when the formerly-subordinate male was observed to act dominantly over the now-injured male. The injured male disappeared a fortnight later.
Nov 1999 / Orchid Beach / Paul Fishburn / Juveniles from three separate litters (each with 5–6 pups) were seen around town on a number of occasions. An adult and the juveniles of the largest (heaviest) litter attacked and killed the juveniles of the two smaller litters.
Jan 2000 / Waddy Point / Paul Fishburn / A group of 13 dingoes followed some bush walkers across the sandblow from a distance.
Aug 2001 / Various / Lindberg 2001 / A least 24 litters were observed from selected parts of the island only, with many more litters expected to be present from other areas not frequented by rangers.
Sept 2001 / Ungowa / Linda Behrendorff / A litter of 10 pups was photographed in a hollow at the base of tree.
Jan 2004 / Waddy Point / Moussalli 1994 / A group of 6 dingoes (2 adults, 4 juveniles) was observed in the same area as another group of 11 dingoes (4 adults, 6 yearlings, 1 juvenile) over a one-month period.
Jan 2004 / Waddy Point / Moussalli 1994 / Intra-pack strife and challenges for social hierarchy were observed on 18 occasions over a one-month period. Clear 'winners' could not be determined on several occasions.
Jan 2004 / Eurong / David Anderson / A group of 8 juveniles were resting on the driveway to a house.
Jul 2004 / Waddy Point / Michelle Brook / A lactating alpha female was observed with another younger lactating female and some pups in a den.
Jul 2005 / Indian Head / Michelle Brook / A group of 9 dingoes were resting near some trap yards set for feral horses. The group included 3 lactating females.
Aug 2005 / Eli Creek / Michelle Brook / A heavily pregnant (with 6 pups) alpha female was killed by other dingoes on the boardwalk. Another alpha female from a distant pack (Dundubara) was observed at Eli Creek by tourists at the time the first female was killed.
Aug 2005 / K'gari / Michelle Brook / An alpha female was observed in her den with 2 pups, but the pups were not seen ever again and the female did not raise a litter that year.
Aug 2005 / Eurong / Linda Behrendorff / A litter of 5 dingo pups was observed near Eurong township.
Sept 2006 / Eurong / Linda Behrendorff / Two females and their litters (4 pups, 5 pups) were observed around the township within a few weeks of each other. An additional female was observed lactating in the area.
Sept 2007 / Eurong / Linda Behrendorff / Two females and their litters (5 pups, 4 pups) were observed around the township within a few weeks of each other. An additional female was observed lactating in the area.
Oct 2007 / Hook Point / Linda Behrendorff / A litter of 8 pups was observed on a number of occasions.
Sept 2008 / Hook Point / Linda Behrendorff / A litter of 6 pups was observed in the area.
Sept 2008 / Eurong / Rob Appleby (see also Appleby et al. 2013) / Two females, one with a litter of 3 individuals, and the other initially with a litter of 6 that was reduced to 4 after one went missing (presumed dead) and another was confirmed to have died, were observed to have raised litters simultaneously within the same territory. At one stage during the raising of their respective litters, both females utilized the same den, although at different times.
Feb 2010 / Eurong / David Anderson / A group of 5 dingoes chased a wandering male dingo into the water and savagely attacked him, before chasing him off along the beach for several hundred meters.
May 2010 / Orchid Beach / Paul Fishburn / An oestrus juvenile female (~10 mo old) copulated with a juvenile male sibling. A second juvenile male sibling also attempted to mate with the female, but was chastised by the first male.
Sept 2010 / Eurong / Linda Behrendorff / A litter of 4 pups was observed around the township.
Sept 2011 / Dundubara / Jim Kellaway / A litter of 8 pups were observed near a den, being fed by a male and collared female dingo (Dingo #02).
Jul-Nov 2011 / Multiple / Linda Behrendorff / Twelve litters were observed (from trail cameras and first-hand observations) across the island between July and November at Sandy Cape (4 pups), Awinya (4 pups), Hook Point (4 pups), Dundubara (8 pups), Happy Valley (5 pups), Dilli Village (5 pups), Snout Point (3 pups), Kingfisher Bay (3 pups), Central Station (4 pups), Poyungan Rocks (5 pups), Orchid Beach (3 pups) and Waddy Point (3 pups). One additional female not associated with these groups was observed lactating west of Orchid Beach.
Jul-Nov 2012 / Multiple / Linda Behrendorff / Eleven litters were observed (from trail cameras and first-hand observations) across the island between July and November at Awinya (4 pups), Hook Point (4 pups), Dundubara (5 pups), Happy Valley (5 pups), Central Station (3 pups), Eurong (8 pups), Garry’s Anchorage (4 pups), Duck Creek (4 pups) and Waddy Point (3 pups). Two additional females not associated with these groups were observed lactating at Poyungan Rocks and north Eurong.
Oct 2012 / Eurong / Linda Behrendorff / A female dingo born in 2008 was later ear-tagged (PinkPinkPink) and seen with pups in 2009 (4 pups), 2010 (4 pups), 2011 (did not breed/not lactating) and 2012 (8 pups).
Feb 2013 / Eurong / David Anderson / A group of 5 dingoes chased a wandering male dingo into the water and savagely attacked him, before chasing him off along the beach for several hundred meters.
Jul-Dec 2013 / Multiple / Linda Behrendorff / Sixteen litters were observed (from trail cameras and first-hand observations) across the island between July and October at Awinya (3 pups), Dundubara (5 pups), Cornwall’s beach (3 pups), Eurong (5 pups), Kingfisher Bay (3 pups), Moon Point (5 pups), Sandy Cape (3 pups), Indian Head (3 pups), Kooloro sandblow (3 pups), Coolooloi (5 pups), Garry’s Anchorage (2 pups), Yidney Rocks (6 pups), Poyungan Rocks (2 pups), Rooney’s Point (2 pups), Orchid Beach (3 pups) and Waddy Point (2 pups). Three additional females not associated with these groups were observed lactating at Ungowa, Central Station and Wathumba.
Oct 2013 / Poyungan Rocks / Sven Lavender / A 2001-born female dingo was ear-tagged in 2003. The same dingo was recaptured on 16th March 2012 and re-tagged (BlueGreenBlue). At the time of re-tagging, she had distended nipples (i.e. had previously suckled). She was photographed lactating later in 2012 and was again observed lactating in September and October 2013.

Table S2 – General aspects of dingo breeding and social ecology

Biological and behavioural phenomenon / Reference
Climate and season determines sperm production in males. Whether or not successful breeding is even possible is largely determined by the presence of oestrus females, which typically occurs during the annual mating season in Autumn. Thus, dingoes only breed once annually. / Catling 1979; Jones and Stevens 1988; Catling et al. 1992; Corbett 2001
Most dingoes do not become sexually mature until their second year. Some become sexually mature by their first year (i.e. when food resources are plentiful). / Table S1; Catling 1979; Catling et al. 1992; Corbett 2001
Most males and females solicit and attempt to mate indiscriminately, almost all sexually mature females become pregnant and give birth to a litter each year, and incest, including parent-offspring and brother-sister breeding is common and normal. / Table S1; Corbett 1988, 2001
Litter sizes can be up to 10 pups (usually 4–6) with approximately equal numbers of males and females. / Table S1; Corbett 2001; Allen et al. 2014
Typically only one litter per pack survives beyond a few weeks or months because infanticide occurs, leaving lactating helpers to assist in rearing the young of the surviving litter. Two litters per pack occur frequently enough not to be considered unusual. / Table S1; Corbett 1988, 2001
Surviving litters usually belong to the alpha female, although subordinate females also kill alpha females and their young. / Table S1; Breckwoldt 1988; Corbett 1988
Rank challenges and resulting fluctuations in the social rank of males are common and occur regularly throughout the year. Rank changes occur less frequently in females. / Table S1; Corbett 1988; Moussalli 1994
Social constraints on breeding mean that only ~30% of pups survive over a two year period, which broadly reflects similar survival rates in wild-living populations. Thus, mortality rates are high for juveniles and dingoes likely have a relatively high finite rate of increase (λ = 0.99–1.3). / Corbett 1988; Fleming et al. 1996

Fig. S1 – Movements of 18 GPS-collared dingoes of mixed ages and sexes between May 2011 and June 2012 (from Baxter and Davies 2013). Black marks denote GPS points taken at 120 min intervals for each dingo. Dingo ID numbers are located in the top corner of each map.

References

Allen, BL, Engeman, RM, Leung, LK-P (2014) The short-term effects of a routine poisoning campaign on the movement behaviour and detectability of a social top-predator. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 21, 2178-2190.

Appleby, R, Smith, B, Jones, D (2013) Observations of a free-ranging adult female dingo (Canis dingo) and littermates’ responses to the death of a pup. Behavioural Processes 96, 42-46.

Baxter, G, Davies, N (2013) 'Tracking dingoes on Fraser Island: final report on Stage 2 of the Dingo Population Study.' (The University of Queensland: Brisbane)

Catling, PC (1979) Seasonal variation in plasma testosterone and the testis in captive male dingoes, Canis familiaries dingo. Australian Journal of Zoology 27, 939-944.

Catling, PC, Corbett, LK, Newsome, AE (1992) Reproduction in captive and wild dingoes (Canis familiaris dingo) in temperate and arid environments of Australia. Wildlife Research 19, 195-209.

Corbett, LK (1988) Social dynamics of a captive dingo pack: Population regulation by dominant female infanticide. Ethology 78, 177-198.

Corbett, LK (2001) 'The dingo in Australia and Asia.' (J.B. Books, South Australia: Marleston)

Fleming, PJS, Thompson, JA, Nicol, HI (1996) Indices for measuring the efficacy of aerial baiting for wild dog control in north-eastern New South Wales. Wildlife Research 23, 665-674.

Jones, E, Stevens, PL (1988) Reproduction in wild canids Canis familiaris from the eastern highlands of Victoria, Australia. Australian Wildlife Research 15, 385-394.

Lindberg, J (2001) 'Memorandum to all staff on 29 August 2001, subject: dingo litters.' (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service: Eurong Ranger Station, Fraser Island)

Moussalli, A (1994) 'A preliminary study of dingoes inhabiting the Waddy Point region, north-east Fraser Island: diet, social organisation and behaviour.' (Griffith University: Mt Gravatt)

Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service – Humane destruction database (dingoes on Fraser Island)

This database shows details of all dingoes humanely destroyed for exhibiting behaviour deemed unacceptable to human safety, 1st January 2001 – 31st March 2014. Dingoes found deceased from unknown causes or those found sick and/or injured and then euthanized out of mercy are not shown (e.g. dingoes terminally injured from vehicle strike or fighting; N = 9 since January 2001). Most destroyed dingoes were known to rangers and ear-tagged from a young age, giving confidence to estimated birth years. Dingo birth dates and ages were estimated visually from characteristics of tooth wear, appearance (overall size and weight) and sexual status, noting the annual breeding cycle of dingoes (Tables S1 and S2) and the date of destruction or prior age at the time of capture and ear-tagging. All birth dates were assumed to be 1st of July in the year of birth.

Reference / Location / Destruction date / Destruction year / Destruction month / Dingo ID / Male / Female / Estimated birth date / Estimated age at death (mo)
DC01 / Waddy Point / 30-Apr-01 / 2001 / 4 / Untagged / 1 / 1-Jul-99 / 22.0
DC02 / Waddy Point / 30-Apr-01 / 2001 / 4 / Untagged / 1 / 1-Jul-99 / 22.0
DC03 / Waddy Point / 02-May-01 / 2001 / 5 / Untagged / 1 / 1-Jul-00 / 10.0
DC04 / Central Station / 03-May-01 / 2001 / 5 / Untagged / 1 / 1-Jul-00 / 10.1