Language,Social,Emotional,Moralandpersonalitydevelopment,Eachmajorstageoflife

KENYATTAUNIVERSITY

INSTITUTEOFOPENLEARNING

EPS203:HUMANGROWTHAND

DEVELOPMENT

CHRISTINEWASANGA

JOSEPHINEARASA

DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

PREFACE:

Humangrowthanddevelopmentisthestudyofhumanbeingsfromconceptiontodeath.

Itseekstointegratethebasicconceptsandprinciplesofphysical,motor,cognitive,

language,social,emotional,moralandpersonalitydevelopment,eachmajorstageoflife

–pre-natalinfancy,childhood,adolescence,adulthoodandoldage.Thiscourseprovides

anessentialbackgroundforstudentsinpsychology,nursing,education,socialwelfare,

homeeconomics,workersincommunityserviceandparents.Thecourseisalsointended

tohelpyouunderstandtourownbehavior,alsoprovidesinsightintothebehaviorof

otherswhichshouldhelpyoutoachievebetterrelationshipswiththosearoundyou.The

courseismeanttohelpyouunderstandthevarioustheories,factsandconceptsrelatedto

humangrowthanddevelopment.

GOALSOFTHECOURSE

Bytheendofthecoursethestudentwillbeable:-

Toenvisageahumanbeingfrompre-natalstagetooldage.

Understandtheunderlyingprinciplesofdevelopment.

Conceptualizeprenataldevelopmentandunderstandtheimportanceofahealthy

pregnancy.

Defineandexplainthedifferentbehaviorsofaneonateandaninfant.

Understandthatachildinearly,middleandlatechildhoodundergoesan

expansionanddevelopmentofthosebehaviorsofinfancy.

Appreciatetheuniquedevelopmentoftheadolescent.

Understandtheproblemsandchallengesoftheadolescentperiod.

Appreciatetheimportanceofstudyingadulthooddevelopment.

Todiscoversomeconsistentprocessesandmajorinfluencesthroughoutthelife

span.

Tounderstandtheinfluencesofchildhoodonlateradulthood.

TABLEOFCONTENTS

LessonOne:IntroductiontoHumanGrowthandDevelopment...... 14

1.0INTRODUCTION...... 14

Objectives...... 14

1.0.DefinitionofTerms...... 14

1.2.RelationshipBetweenGrowthandDevelopment...... 15

1.3.PrinciplesofGrowthandDevelopment:...... 15

1.4.ImportanceofStudyingHumanGrowthandDevelopment...... 17

1.5.Summary...... 18

LessonTwo:ResearchMethodsandDesignsInHumanDevelopment...... 19

2.0.Introduction...... 19

Objectives...... 19

2.1.ResearchMethodsAndDesigns...... 19

2.1.1Observation...... 19

2.1.2ExperimentalTechniques...... 20

2.1.3ClinicalMethods...... 21

2.1.4Cross-SectionalResearchDesign...... 21

2.1.5LongitudinalResearchDesign:...... 22

2.1.6SequentialResearchDesign(Longitudinal/Cross-Sectional)...... 22

2.2.EthicalConsiderationsInDevelopmentalResearch...... 23

2.3Summary...... 23

LessonThree:TheoriesandDeterminantsofHumanDevelopment...... 25

3.0.Introduction...... 25

Objectives...... 25

3.1.RoleAndFunctionsofTheories:...... 26

3.2.1.Gesell’sTheoryofMaturation...... 26

3.2.2.PsychoanalyticTheoryofSigmundFreud...... 26

3.2.3.PsychosocialTheoryofEriksson...... 29

3.2.4.Piaget’sTheoryofCognitiveDevelopment...... 30

3.2.5.BehavioralTheory(Skinner,Watson)...... 30

3.2.6.SocialLearningTheory(A.Bandura.)...... 31

3.2.7.InformationProcessingTheory...... 31

3.2.8.EclecticApproachtoUnderstandingBehavior...... 31

3.3.DeterminantsofDevelopment...... 31

3.4Summary...... 32

LESSONFOUR:PRE-NATALDEVELOPMENT...... 34

4.0.Introduction...... 34

Objectives...... 34

4.1.StagesofPrenatalDevelopment...... 34

4.2.FactorsAffectingPrenatalDevelopment...... 36

4.2.1.AbnormalGenesandChromosomes...... 36

4.2.2.EnvironmentalInfluences(Teratogens)...... 38

4.3.TheBirthProcess...... 40

4.4.Implications...... 41

4.5.Summary...... 42

LESSONFIVE:THENEONATE...... 43

5.0.Introduction...... 43

Objectives...... 43

5.1.PhysicalAppearanceandTestsUsedtoAscertainNormality...... 43

5.2BehavioralCapacitiesoftheNeonate...... 44

5.2.1ReflexiveBehaviors:...... 44

5.2.2SensoryCapacitiesofTheNeonate...... 47

5.3OtherSkillsoftheNeonate...... 48

5.4Summary...... 49

LESSONSIX:PHYSICALANDMOTORDEVELOPMENT...... 51

6.0Introduction...... 51

Objectives...... 51

6.1ChangesInHeightandWeight...... 51

6.1.2DevelopmentoftheBrainandtheNervousSystem...... 51

6.1.3SkeletalDevelopment...... 52

6.1.4MuscularDevelopment...... 52

6.2PhysicalBehavior–MotorDevelopment...... 53

6.3ImportanceofMotorDevelopment...... 54

6.4FactorsAffectingPhysicalandMotorDevelopment...... 54

Summary...... 54

LESSONSEVEN:PERCEPTUALDEVELOPMENT...... 56

7.0Introduction...... 56

Objectives...... 56

7.1DefinitionandTHeoriesofPerceptualDevelopment...... 56

7.2PerceptualDevelopment...... 57

7.3DevelopmentofDifferentTypesofPerception...... 59

7.4FactorsInfluencingPerceptualDevelopment...... 61

7.5Summary...... 61

LESSONEIGHT:COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT...... 63

8.0Introduction...... 63

Objectives...... 63

8.1DefinitionofTerms...... 63

8.2Piaget’sStagesofCognitiveDevelopment...... 65

8.3FactorsInfluencingCognitiveDevelopment...... 71

8.4Summary...... 71

LESSONNINE:LANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT...... 73

9.0Introduction...... 73

Objectives...... 73

9.1DefinitionofTerms...... 73

9.2ProcessofLanguageAcquisition...... 75

9.3TheoriesofLanguageAcqusition...... 76

9.4FactorsInfluencingLanguageDevelopment...... 77

9.5Summary...... 77

LESSONTEN:SOCIALDEVELOPMENT...... 79

10.0Introduction...... 79

Objectives...... 79

10.1.TheoriesofSocialDevelopment...... 79

10.2TheProcessofSocialDevelopment...... 80

10.3AgentsofSocialization...... 80

10.4TheRoleofPlayInSocialDevelopment...... 82

10.5FactorsInfluencingSocialDevelopment...... 84

10.6Summary...... 85

ReviewQuestions...... 85

LESSONELEVEN:EMOTIONALDEVELOPMENT...... 86

11.0Introduction...... 86

Objectives...... 86

11.1DevelopmentofEmotions...... 86

11.2ExpressionofEmotions...... 87

11.3RecognizingandInterpretingEmotions...... 88

11.4EmotionalAttachment...... 90

11.5ImportanceofEmotionalDevelopment...... 93

11.6Summary...... 94

ReviewQuestions...... 94

LESSONTWELVE:MORALDEVELOPMENT...... 95

12.0Introduction...... 95

Objectives...... 95

12.1Piaget’sTheoryofMoralDevelopment...... 95

12.2KohlbergsTheoryofMoralDevelopment...... 97

12.3FactorsInfluencingMoralDevelopment...... 99

Summary...... 100

LESSONTHIRTEEN:ADOLESCENTGROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT...... 101

13.0Introduction...... 101

Objectives...... 101

13.1DevelopmentalTasks...... 101

13.2PhysicalGrowthandDevelopment...... 102

13.3CognitiveandPsycho-SocialDevelopment...... 106

13.3.1CognitiveDevelopmentattheAdolescentStage...... 106

13.3.2AdolescentMoralDevelopment...... 108

13.3.3.SocialDevelopmentattheAdolescentStage...... 109

13.3.4EmotionalDevelopmentDuringtheAdolescentStage...... 111

13.4ChallengesandProblemsFacingAdolescents...... 114

13.5Summary...... 115

LESSONFOURTEEN:ADULTHOODDEVELOPMENT...... 117

14.0Introduction...... 117

Objectives...... 117

14.1EarlyAdulthood(20–40Years)...... 117

14.2MiddleAdulthood(41-65Years)...... 118

14.3LateAdulthoodandAging(65AndAbove)...... 120

1.4Summary...... 122

REFERENCESANDFURTHERREADING...... 124

LESSONONE:INTRODUCTIONTOHUMANGROWTHAND

DEVELOPMENT

1.0INTRODUCTION

Inthisintroductorylesson,wearegoingtointroduceyoutotheconceptsofhuman

growthanddevelopment.Inthefirstpartwewilllookatdefinitionsofthetermsgrowth

anddevelopment,followedbytherelationshipbetweengrowthanddevelopment.Inthe

secondpartwewilllookattheprinciplesofgrowthanddevelopmentandfinallythe

importanceofstudyinghumangrowthanddevelopment.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislesson,youshouldbeableto:

1.Definethetermsgrowthanddevelopment.

2.Discusstheprinciplesofgrowthanddevelopment.

3.Explaintheimportanceofstudyinghumangrowthanddevelopment.

1.0.DEFINITIONOFTERMS

Growth

Growthreferstothephysicalandphysiologicalchangesthatoccurthroughoutlife.These

changesarequantitativesuchasphysicalgrowth(changeinweightandheight)andoccur

duringtheearlyphasesoflifeuptoadolescentyears.Quantitativechangesreferto

measurableandobviousfeaturesofhumandevelopment.

Development

Developmentreferstochangeinfunctionandsuchchangesarenon-organicandusually

qualitative,forexamplelanguageusage,thoughtprocessing,readingskills,andpeer

relationships.Qualitativechangesrefertothealterationsinhumanfunctioningthrough

thelifespan.

1.2.RELATIONSHIPBETWEENGROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT

1)Developmentisachievedthroughgrowth.Onecangrowbutnotdevelop.For

exampleachildcanincreaseinsizebutmaynotbeabletowalk.

2)Developmentisacontinuouslifelongprocesswhilegrowthislimited.

3)Growthreferstoorganicchangeswhiledevelopmentreferstonon-organic–

functionalchanges.

4)Growthisquantitativewhiledevelopmentisqualitative.

1.3.PRINCIPLESOFGROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT:

Principlesaregeneralpatternsthatholdtrueindescribingthewayhumanbeingdevelops.

Themainprinciplesaregivenbelow:-

1.Developmentfollowsadefiniteorderlysequentialandpredictablepatternratherthan

random.Forexampleachildsits,thenstandsandwalks.Theordercannotbe

reversed.

2.Developmentfollowstwodirectionaltrends:-

i.Cephalocaudaltrend–developmentproceedsfromtheheadtotheheel.Forexample,

thechildcanholdtheheaduprightandusethehandsbeforewalkingorusingthelegs.

ii.Proximodistaltrend–developmentproceedsfromthecenterlineofthebodytothe

otherparts.Forexample,thechildcanwavethehandsbeforeusingthefingerstopick

something.

3.Althoughdevelopmentisacontinuousprocess,itisnotalwayssmoothandgradual.

Therearegrowthspurts,thatisperiodsofacceleratedgrowth.Forexample,thefirst

twoyearsandtheadolescentperiodareperiodsofacceleratedgrowth.

4.Therearecriticalorsensitiveperiodsinthedevelopmentofbodyorgansand

psychologicalfunctions.Theseareperiodswhenthepotentialforgrowthaswellas

harmfromtheenvironmentisatitsmaximum.Anyinterferencemayresultin

permanentdeficienciesormalfunction,forexamplefourteenthtoninetiethday.This

istheperiodwhenmostoftheorgansofthebodyaredeveloping.

5.Alldevelopmentalchangesareaproductoftwobasicprocesses–maturation

(heredity)andexperience(learning).

6.Developmentisshapedbyitshistorical/culturalcontext.Forexamplethosebornin

theageofcomputersandInternetarelikelytohavedifferentexperiences.

7.Differentaspectsofdevelopmentareinterrelated.Forexamplephysicaldevelopment

willinfluencesocialandmentaldevelopment.

8.Humandevelopmentisaholisticprocessandnotpiecemeal.

9.Developmentisanindividualizedprocess.Thatis,eachchildhasacharacteristicrate

ofdevelopmentregardlessofthestageofdevelopment.Thesedifferencesmaybedue

togeneticfactors,nutrition,illness,lackofexercise,etc.

10.Developmentproceedsfromgeneraltospecificandsimpletocomplex.Forexample

babiesmovetheirarms(grossmovement)beforegraspingwiththumbandindex

finger(specific).

11.Developmentisacumulativeprocess,i.e.changesdonotemergeallofasudden.Past

eventsoftenhaveimplicationsforthefuture.

12.Thereismuchplasticityinhumandevelopment.Plasticityreferstothecapacityfor

changeinresponsetopositiveornegativelifeexperiences.Thecauseofdevelopment

canchangeabruptlyifimportantaspectsofoneslifechange.

1.4.IMPORTANCEOFSTUDYINGHUMANGROWTHANDDEVELOPMENT

1)Theteachermustknowthebasicprinciplesofgrowthanddevelopmentandthe

characteristicsthatemergeatdifferentagelevelsinordertoprovideeffective

guidanceforharmoniousdevelopmentofchildren.

2)Childrencometoschoolwithindividualdifferencesduetotheirdifferenthomes

andenvironment.Theteacherneedstoknowthepotentialitiesandcapabilitiesof

eachandeverychildsothathemayexploitthemtothemaximumforthebenefit

ofsociety.

3)Toensurecontinuityfromthepasttothepresent,theteacherneedstounderstand

pastaspectsofdevelopment.Theteacherwillunderstandthepresentintermsof

itspast.Whatstudentsareisasaresultofwhattheyhavebeenthrough.

4)Theteacherisanagentofsocializationandthereisneedtoknowthosewhomhe

willsocializeinordertofacilitatetheirdevelopmentasgoodcitizens.

5)Theteacherneedstoknowandunderstandthebasisofdevelopmentandwhatis

abnormal.

6)Toimprovethequalityoflearningandteachingbecausetheteacherknowsthe

normalcharacteristicsofchildrenatdifferentages.

7)Theteacherwillbeabletounderstandhimself/herselfbetter.

1.5.Summary

Growthanddevelopmentisbothquantitativeandqualitative.

Therearegeneralpatternsorprinciplesofdevelopment.

Itisimportanttostudyhumangrowthanddevelopmentsoastounderstandothers

andourselvesaroundus.

Reviewquestions

1)Compareandcontrastgrowthanddevelopmentgivingexamples.

2)Describethebasicprinciplesofgrowthanddevelopment.

3)Explainwhyitisimportanttostudyhumangrowthanddevelopment.

LESSONTWO:RESEARCHMETHODSANDDESIGNSINHUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

2.0.INTRODUCTION

Inthepreviouslesson,weintroducedyoutotheconceptsofgrowthanddevelopment,the

underlyingprinciplesofgrowthanddevelopmentandwhyitisimportanttostudythe

course.Inthislesson,wearegoingtolookattheresearchmethodsusedtostudyhuman

beingsatvariousstagesofdevelopment.Wewillalsolookatresearchdesignsandethical

standardsfordevelopmentalpsychology.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislessonthestudentshouldbeableto:

1.Identifyandexplainthevariousmethodsandresearchdesignsusedtostudyhuman

growthanddevelopment.

2.Discussthevariousethicalconsiderationsinthestudyofhumandevelopment.

2.1.RESEARCHMETHODSANDDESIGNS

Thefollowingarethevariousmethodsofresearchinhumangrowthanddevelopment:-

2.1.1Observation

Thisisadatacollectionstrategyinwhichtheongoingbehaviorofindividualsisrecorded

withaslittleinteractionbetweenobserverandsubjectaspossible.Thegoalofthis

researchistodetermineexactlywhatindividualsaredoinginaspecificsetting.

Observationaltechniqueshavethefollowingadvantagesanddisadvantages.

Advantages

· Observessubjectsintheirnaturalsettings.

· Developmentcanbeobservedinvariousstages.

· Theresearcherdoesnotimposethemselvesonthesubjects.

· Isimportantfordetermininghowchildrenandadultsfunctionintheireverydaylife.

Disadvantages

· Itdoesnotanswerthequestionofcauseandeffect(doesnottellushowandwhy

eventsarehappening.

· Itdoesnotallowforexperimentalcontroltodeterminehowresearchvariablesare

relatedtooneanother.

· Itdoesnottellusabouttheinternalpsychologicaleventsandexperiencesofsubjects,

thatistheirthoughts,believes,fantasies,etc.

· Theseproceduresareinefficientwhenstudyingbehavioroccurinfrequentlyor

irregularlyinthesubjects’everydaylife.

· Onehastowaitforalongtimebeforethebehaviorofinterestisemitted.

· Problemofobserverbias–oneislikelytorecordthepositiveaspectsandomitthe

negativeonesorviceversa.

· Sometimesonemaynotbeabletoapplyalltheinformationtoothersubjectsin

general.Thatistheinformationmaynotbegeneralizedtoothers.

2.1.2Experimentaltechniques

Thisisadatacollectionstrategyinwhichonesetofvariables(independentvariable)are

manipulatedandtheirinfluenceobservedonasecondsetofvariables(dependent

variable).Itismostappropriatewhenonewantstoestablishcause-effectrelationships

andcanalsobeusedtostudybehaviorthatoccursirregularlyorinfrequentlyineveryday

life.Theprocedurecanberepeatedorreplicatedbyotherinvestigators.Italsoprovidesa

testforthereliabilityoffindings.However,ithasthefollowinglimitations:-

· Somebehaviorsarenotopentoexperimentalmanipulation.

· Someofthefindingshavelimitedapplications–ittellswhatsubjectscandoin

restrictedlaboratoryconditionsbutnotinreallife.

· Artificialityoftheexperimentalresearchforexamplesometimessubjectsmaytryto

lookgoodandreportbetterresultsthanthecasemaybe.Alternativelytheymay

behaveunnaturallyorintentionallyaltertheirbehaviortosabotagetheexperiment.

2.1.3Clinicalmethods

Involvesaresearcherandoneindividualorsubjectatatime.Itcombinesobservations

andcarefulquestioning.Theclinicalmethodisflexible.Questioningorthetasksgiven

canbeindividualizedforeachperson.Themajordisadvantageisthatitmayproduce

conclusionsthataredependentontheinterviewerabilitytoasktherightquestions.In

addition,resultsobtainedmayneedtobeverifiedbyothers.

Toaccomplishthegoalsofdevelopmentalresearch,scientistsmustdiscoverhowand

whypeoplechangeorremainthesameovertime.Toaccomplishdevelopmental

psychologistsusetwobasicresearchdesigns.

2.1.4Cross-sectionalresearchdesign

Itcomparesgroupsofindividualsofdifferentagesonthesamemeasureatthesametime.

Forexample,studyingmoralreasoningofthirtyandsixtyyearoldsoverashortperiodof

time.

Advantages

· Itisquickandrelativelyinexpensive.

· Itgivesagoodoverviewofthephenomenaunderinvestigation.

· Studiesalargenumberofsubjects.

· Canretestatlaterdate.

Disadvantages

· Itdoesnottellusthehistoricalantecedentsofthebehavior.

· Itdoesnottellusaboutbehavioralstability.

· Peoplefromdifferentagegroupsnotonlydifferinchronologicalagebutalsointhe

timeperiodinwhichtheywerebornandraised(generationaleffects)

2.1.5Longitudinalresearchdesign:

Isaresearchdesigninwhichagroupofindividualsisrepeatedlytestedoveraperiodof

time.Thisismeanttoovercomethevariouslimitationsofcross-sectionaldesigns.For

example,testingsameadultseverytenyearstoseechangesintheirmoralreasoning.

Advantages

· Providesagoodpictureofdevelopmentwithinindividuals.

· Canprovideanswersaboutdevelopmentalstabilityofbehaviors.

· Candetermineinfluencesofearlierconditionsorexperiences.

Limitations

· Istimeandmoneyconsuming–veryexpensive.

· Subjectsmaydropoutduetodeath,illness,migration,wars,etc.

· Thesubjectswhocompletethestudyarelikelytobemoreco-operative,motivated,

morepersistentandmorecompetent–hencemaybebiased,makingitdifficultto

drawvalidconclusions.

· Whensubjectsaretestedrepeatedlyoverlongperiodsoftimeortheyreceivethe

sameorsimilartestsmorethanonce,theyarelikelytodobetternotbecauseof

developmentaleffectsbutcauseofeffectsofrepeatedpractice.

· Somechangesinindividualsmaybeduetothetimeofmeasurementratherthan

development.

2.1.6Sequentialresearchdesign(longitudinal/cross-sectional)

Itcombinescrosssectionalandlongitudinalapproaches.Itstartswithcross-sectional,

thenmonthsoryearslater,youstudythesameindividualsi.e.longitudinalaspects.

2.2.ETHICALCONSIDERATIONSINDEVELOPMENTALRESEARCH

Researchcanexposesubjectstopossiblephysicalorpsychologicalharm.Thisbringsus

totheissueofresearchethics.Thissectionintroducesyoutosomeoftheethical

considerationswhenconductingresearch.Theseinclude:-

1.Protectionfromphysicalorpsychologicalharm,forexamplepunishingchildrento

studyitseffects.

2.Informedconsentfromthesubjectsthemselvesorguardiansorparents.Involves

givingcorrectinformationabouttheresearch,thepurposeandoperationofthe

research,etc.subjectshouldbegiventherighttorefuseconsent.

3.Subjectsshouldnotbeforcedtoparticipateinresearch.

4.Confidentiality–subjectidentitywrittenorverbalreportsandotherinformal

discussionsshouldbekeptinstrictconfidence.

5.Theresearchershouldreportthegeneralfindingsofthestudytothesubjects,parents

andothers.

6.Donottakeadvantageoftheyoungandtheoldsubjects.Theyhavetherighttobe

treatedwell.

7.Deceptionanddebriefing–undersomecircumstancesyoucandeceivethesubjects,

butyouhavetodebriefthemlater.

2.3Summary

Fromthislessonwehaveseenseveraltechniquesdevelopmentalpsychologistsuseto

collectdata(observation,experimental,clinical,etc).Eachofthesemethodshastheir

ownstrengthsandweaknesses.

Variousresearchdesignsareavailabletopsychologists.

Researchersneedtobeawareofethicalconsiderations.

Reviewquestionsandactivities

a)Foreachoftheresearchmethodsdiscussed,formulatetwoproblemsthatcanbe

investigatedwitheachmethod.Foreachoftheproblems,identifysomeofthe

ethicalissuesyouwouldconsider.

b)Givetwoadvantagesanddisadvantages,forthemethodsdiscussed.

c)Compareandcontrastlongitudinalandcross-sectionaldesigns.

LESSONTHREE:THEORIESANDDETERMINANTSOFHUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

3.0.INTRODUCTION

Inthislessonwearegoingtolookattheoriesanddeterminantsofdevelopment.The

wordtheorymeanssomeone’sguessaboutwhysomethinghappensthewayitdoes.

AccordingtoBrodizinsky(1986)atheoryisasetofcoherentstatements,lawsand

principlesthatdescribe,defineandpredictspecificaspectsofhumandevelopment.The

majorpurposeofexaminingtheoriesofhumandevelopmentistodemonstratehowsuch

theoriesareusedtoformulateanswerstobasicquestionsofhumandevelopment.

Wewillalsolookatthemaindeterminantsofdevelopment.Bothheredityandthetypeof

environmentinwhichoneisraisedinfluencehumandevelopment.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislessontheleanershouldbeableto:

1.Definewhatismeantbyatheory.

2.Describecharacteristicsandfunctionsoftheories.

3.Describethebasicideasandstagesofthefollowingtheories:

-Freud’spsychosexualtheory.

-Erickson’spsychosocialtheory.

-Behavioraltheories.

-Social-learningtheories.

-Piaget’stheory.

-Gessel’stheory

-Informationprocessingapproach.

4.Compareandcontrasttheabovetheoriesofhumandevelopmentandshowhoweach

accountfordevelopment.

5.Understandthemajordeterminantsofhumandevelopment.

3.1.ROLEANDFUNCTIONSOFTHEORIES:

Brodizinsky(1986)identifiedfourrolesofTheories:-

· Describestheconditionsunderwhichthephenomenabeingstudiedoccur.

· Setslimitsorboundariesdeterminingtheparticularphenomenaforwhichthetheorist

isresponsible.

· Suggestspossiblerelationshipsbetweentheoreticalconstructs.

· Bringstogetheranexistingdataintoanintegrated,logicallyconsistentbodyof

knowledge.

THEORIESOFHUMANDEVELPOMENT

3.2.1.Gesell’sTheoryOfMaturation

Accordingtothistheory,developmentisguidedbytheunfoldingoftheindividual’s

uniquegeneticplan.Childrenundergogrowthanddevelopmentattheirownindividual

rates,i.e.humanbeingsareprogrammedtodevelopaccordingtoaparticularpattern.

Environmentherebyallowsgeneticallyprogrammedbehaviortoproceedinanorderly

fashion.Therefore,thereisaneedforparentsandcaregiverstounderstandthese

individualratesofmaturation.Don’tpushtoomuch(conceptofreadiness).Themajor

weaknessesarethatitunderestimatestheroleofenvironmentandgivelittleroomfor

intervention.

3.2.2.PsychoanalyticTheoryofSigmundFreud

Accordingtothistheory:-

i. Behaviorismotivatedbyunconsciousthoughtmemoriesandfeelings.

ii. Lifeistheunfoldingofsexinstinct.

iii. Childearlyexperienceaffectlaterpersonalityandmentalhealth.

iv. Childrendevelopthroughasequenceofstages.

v. Peopleprotectthemselvesfromanxietyandothernegativeemotionsthrough

defensemechanism.

Personalitystructure–AccordingtoFreud,personalityhasthreeconstructs,id,ego,

andsuperego.

Id-thesourceofallwishesanddesires.

- It’sunconscious.

- Isseeksimmediategratification.

- Islikeaninfant.Itoperatesonthepleasureprinciple.

Ego-principle–satisfiesneedsthroughsociallyappropriatemanner.

- Delaysgratificationofid.Operatesontherealityprinciple.

Superego

- InhibitsId’santisocialdesirescausinganindividualtoexperienceguilt.

Itisthemoralarmofpersonality.Itrepresentsourconscience.Somepeoplecannot

controltheirIdandthuscannotdelaygratificationorrestraintheirdesires.Thosepeople

withweaksuperegosmaynotactinanethicalmanner.Whenegocannotbalance

betweenidandsuperegoitleadstoanxiety,whichresultsintheuseofdefense

mechanisms.Defensemechanismsareautomaticorunconsciousprocessesthatserveto

relieveorreducefeelingsofanxietyoremotionalconflicts.Theseincluderepression,

rationalization,reactionformation,regression,sublimation,denial,compensation,

projection,anddisplacement.

Psychosexualstages

Freudsaysthatthechildcomesintothisworldequippedwiththelibidoorsexualenergy.

Thissexualenergyissatisfiedindifferentpartsofthebodyasthechildgrows.This

formsthestagesofpersonalitydevelopment,whichareasfollows:-

1.Oralstage(0–1years)

Sexualityiscenteredonoralcavity.Pleasureisobtainedthroughsuckingorbiting.

Frustrationoroverstimulationleadstofixation,whichisreflectedinonespersonality.A

personmayexpecttobemothered,sarcasticorsmoking.

2.Analstage(2–3years)

Sexualityiscenteredontheanalcavity.Pleasureisgotthrougheliminationorretention

ofwasteproducts.Theemphasisofparentsisontoilettraining.Iftoilettrainingisdone

smoothly,thechilddevelopsself-confidence,becomescreativeandproductive.

Ifparentsaretoostrictandthereisalotoffriction,thechildlearnstoretainfeces.Later

inlifethechildmaydeveloparetentivecharacter,bestingy,aggressive,excessively

stubbornandexcessivecleanliness.

3.Phallicstage(4–5years)

Sexualenergyisattachedtogenitals.OedipusandElectracomplexesarise.InOedipus

complex,theboystartstohavesexualfeelingsfortheirmotherbutduetofearofbeing

castratedbythefathertheyidentifywiththefather.OntheotherhandinElectra

complex,thegirlhasfeelingsfortheirfatherbutduetofearoftheirmotheridentifywith

themother.

Theprocessofidentificationisimportantbecauseitmakestheboyadopttheappropriate

sexrolesandbehavior.Ifproperidentificationdoesnotoccur,theresultwillbepoor

developmentofsexrolesandlackofconscience.

4.Latency(6–11years)

Childsexualityisdormant.Childrenspendtimeplayingwithsamesexpeers.

5.Genitalstage(12–19years)

Atthisstageadultheterosexualbehaviordevelops.Libidoisre-awakenedandamore

maturesexualattachmentoccurs.Sexualobjectsarepeopleoftheoppositesex,firstwith

adultse.g.teachers,olderidolsandlaterwithpeers.Ifconfusedidentifications,one

cannotcopewitharousedsexualfeelingsatthisstage.Alsoiforalperiodwasnot

satisfactory,onewillnothavethefoundationsforbasicloverelationships.

NB:

Thistheoryshowstheimportanceofearlychildhoodexperiences.Thereisneedfor

subsequentexperiencestoeasethenegativeeffectofpoorearlychildhoodexperiences.

3.2.3.PsychosocialTheoryofEriksson

Erikssonbelievesthathumanbeingsfaceeightmajorcrisisorconflictsintheirlives.

Theseformthestagesofpersonalitydevelopment.Eachstagepresentsonewithacrisis,

ifthecrisisiswellhandledapositiveoutcomeismet,whereelseifthecrisisisnotwell

handledanegativeoutcomeisgenerated.Resolutionofonestagebringsthefoundation

fornegotiatingchallengesofthenextstage.

Thetablebelowpresentstheeightstages:-

Table3.1:Erikson’sstagesofpersonalitydevelopment

3.2.4.Piaget’sTheoryofCognitiveDevelopment

AccordingtoPiaget,childrenthinkanddealwithproblemsdifferentlyfromadults.

Maturation,experience,socialtransmissionandequilibration–thatisabalancebetween

whatisknownandwhatisbeingexperienced,influencedevelopment.

ThetablebelowgivesasummaryofPiaget’sstages.

Table3.2:Piaget’sstagesofcognitivedevelopment.

3.2.5.BehavioralTheory(Skinner,Watson)

Accordingtothistheory,humanbehavioristheresultofenvironmentalstimulationi.e.

accumulatedeffectsoflearning.Muchofwhatanindividualbecomesistheresultof

whatheorshehasexperiencedorlearned.Thiscanbethroughclassicalconditioningor

operantconditioning.Inclassicalconditioning,learningtakesplacethroughassociation,

whileinoperantconditioning,learningdependsonrewardsandpunishments.

3.2.6.SocialLearningTheory(A.Bandura.)

Muchofwhatwelearnandhowwedevelopoccursthroughobservationandimitationof

thosearoundus.

3.2.7.InformationProcessingTheory

Themainfocusfortheinformationprocessingtheoryisonthequantitativechangesthat

occurinpeople’sknowledge,skillsandtheefficiencywithwhichweattendto,make

senseofandrememberinformationinthecourseofdevelopment.Thistheoryis

concernedwiththechangesinthewaypeopletransferinformation,fromoneperiodof

lifetoanother,i.e.peoplebecomeincreasinglyawarethattheyneedtodosomething

specialinordertorememberthings.Thesetransitionsarenotpresentedinstagelike

fashionlikethoseinPiaget’stheory.Insteaditshowstheflowofinformationbeginning

withinput(stimulus)leadingtosomesortofoutput(response).Thistheoryattemptsto

specifymechanismsbywhichpeoplemaketransitionsintheirproblemsolvingcapacity.

3.2.8.EclecticApproachtoUnderstandingBehavior

Oneislikelytoaskwhichisthebestorcorrecttheory.Thereisnoonecorrectorright

theory.Eachtheorydefinesitsownareaofinvestigationanditsresearchmethods.The

theoriesdifferfromeachotheraccordingtowhatarethemostimportantaspectsof

behavioryouwanttostudy.Thereforeeachtheoryistruetoitsownareaofinquiry.

Wehavetousetheeclecticapproachtounderstandbehaviorbypickingandchoosing

elementsfromthedifferenttheories.

3.3.DETERMINANTSOFDEVELOPMENT

Thequestionofwhatdeterminesdevelopmentisoneoftheoldestcontroversiesinhuman

history.Thedebateisontherelativeimpactofhereditary(nature)andenvironmental

influences(nurture)inshapingpersonalitytraitsandcharacteristics.Naturereferstothe

geneticinfluencesindevelopment,whilenurturereferstotheenvironmentalinfluences

ondevelopment,fromprenataltodeath.Informationcarriedbygenesinchromosomes

influencesthesequenceofgrowthandmaturation,timingofpuberty,courseofaging,eye

color,skincolor,susceptibilitytosomediseases,intelligence,temperament,personality

traits,(aggressiveness,smiling,responses,fear,shyness).Italsoinfluencesthesequence

ofpsychologicaldisorders(depressionandschizophrenia),alcoholism,bodysizeand

shape,height,athleticpotential.

Nurtureincludesalltheindividual’sexperiencesintheoutsideworldi.e.thefamily,

school,community,andthecultureatlarge.Bothinteracttoproduceahumanbeing

withoutgenes.Apersonwithoutenvironmentisnoperson.Theinteractionbetween

natureandnurtureisthecrucialinfluenceonanyparticularaspectofdevelopment.

3.4Summary

Atheoryisasetofunderstandingsaboutdevelopment,maturation,andlearning.

Thereisnoonetrue,correct,righttheory.Eachprovidesawindowof

understandingdevelopment.

Psychoanalytictheoryfocusesonearlychildhoodexperiencesandunconscious

forces.

Piaget’scognitivetheoryaddressescognitionandchangesinthestructureinthe

thinking,frominfancytoadolescence.

Behavioristtheorylooksattheroleofenvironmentalfactorsindevelopment.

Sociallearningtheoryfocusesontheroleofobservationandinitiation.

Theinformationprocessingtheorydescribesthewayinwhichweattendto,make

senseofandrememberinformationduringthecourseofdevelopment.

Maturationalbiologicaltheoryemphasizestheimportanceoftheindividual’srate

ofmaturation.

Humandevelopmentisdeterminedbytheinteractionbetweenheredityand

aspectsofthephysicalandsocialenvironment.

ReviewQuestions

1)Discussthemaincharacteristicsofeachofthetheoriesshowinghoweachtheory

accountfordevelopment.

2)Discussthemajorenvironmentalinfluencesonhumandevelopmentinyourlocal

community.

3)Discusshowgenesinfluenceone’sphysicalcharacteristicsofbehavior.

LESSONFOUR:PRE-NATALDEVELOPMENT

4.0.INTRODUCTION

Inthislessonwewilllookathumandevelopmentduringtheprenatalstageof

development.Specificallywewilllookatthestagesofprenataldevelopmentandthe

socialandenvironmentalfactorsthataffectdevelopmentduringthisperiod.Wewillalso

lookatthebirthprocessandhowitmayaffectthechild.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthelessonthestudentsshouldbeableto:

Describetheperiodsofprenataldevelopment.

Explainthemajorfeaturesofeachperiod.

Identifyandexplainthemajorenvironmentalinfluences(teratogens)ofprenatal

period.

Discusstheproblemsthatoccurduringbirthandtheirsolutions.

Identifycriticalperiodsindevelopment.

Identifyanddescribemajorbiologicalriskfactorsduringtheprenatalperiod.

4.1.STAGESOFPRENATALDEVELOPMENT

Humanlifebeginsatconception,whichoccurswhenaspermcelluniteswithanegg

fromafemaleandformsasinglecellcalledazygote.

Afterconceptionthegrowthanddevelopmentofthehumanbeingproceedsasaresultof

celldivision.Therearetwoprocessesofcelldivision:-

· Mitosis–istheprocessofcelldivisioninwhichasinglebody(somatic)cell

dividesintotwoexactlyequalparts.Eachofthepartshasexactlythesame23

pairsofchromosomesasintheoriginalcell.

· Meiosis–istheprocessofcelldivisionthatoccursduringtheproductionofsex

orgermcells(ovaandsperm).Duringthisprocesseachchromosomesplitsand

separatessothattheresultingovumorspermcontainsonly23single

chromosomes.

Theperiodbetweenconceptionandbirthisreferredtoastheprenatalperiod.Human

growthanddevelopmentoccursmostrapidlyduringthisperiod.Prenataldevelopmentis

dividedintothreestages:-

1.Germinalperiod/pre-embryonicperiod(conception-14days)

Thisperiodischaracterizedbyrapidcelldivisionandendswhenthezygoteimplants

itselfinthewallsoftheuterus.

2.Embryonicstage(3-8weeks)

Duringthisstage,celldifferentiationoccursinwhichthecellsoftheblastocyst

differentiatethemselvesintothreelayers.Thisisfollowedbyorgangenesisinwhich

differentorgansofthebodybegintoform.Otherdevelopmentsduringthisperiodarethe

formationoftheamnioticsac–whichisfilledbyamnioticfluid.Theplacentaisalso

formedthroughwhichtheembryogetsitsnutrientsduringpregnancy.Bythe8thweek,

theembryohasrudimentaryeyes,ears,nose,mouth,liver,heart,andwebbedfingers.

Thisperiodisverycriticalfordevelopment.Thisisbecause:

Theembryoismostsusceptibletoinfluencesofteratogens–viruses,chemicals,

drugsandradiation.Ifitisexposedtoanyofthese,itismostlikelythatthe

embryowillhaveabnormalitiesoftheorgansofthebody,whichareinthe

processofbeingformed.

Mostmiscarriagesoccuratthisperiod.Embryodetachesfromthewallandis

expelled.

3.Periodofthefetus(9-40weeks)

Duringthisperiod,themajorsystemsbegintofunction.Thereisalsorefiningand

improvingofwhatisalreadyformed.Thereisamajorgrowthanddevelopmentofthe

brainandthenervoussystemduringthelastthreemonthsofprenataldevelopment.The

28thweekmarksthepointofviability,whichisthepointatwhichsurvivaloutsidethe

uterusmaybepossible.Thebabyisbornapproximately266daysafterconceptionor280

daysfromtheonsetofthelastperiod.

Table4.1:Summaryofprenatalmilestones

4.2.FACTORSAFFECTINGPRENATALDEVELOPMENT

Eachyearsomebabiesarebornwithbirthdefectsthatrangefromgrossanomaliesthat

mayleadtosuddendeathtominimalphysicalormentaldefects.About7%ofchildren

arebornwithacongenitaldefect.Thesedefectsmaybecausedbythefollowingfactors:-

· Abnormalgenesandchromosomes.

· Harmfulconditionsinthewomb.

· Abnormalitiesduringthebirthprocess.

4.2.1.Abnormalgenesandchromosomes

(a)Geneticabnormalities:-geneticabnormalitiesresultfrommutations–thatis,a

changeinthechemicalstructureorarrangementofoneormoregenesthathasthe

effectofproducinganewphenotype.Someconditionsthatmayresultfromthis

are:-

(i.) Cysticfibrosis–occursinabout1in1000births.Thechildlacksan

enzymethatpreventsmucusfromobstructingthelungsandthedigestive

system.Manywhoinheritthisproblemdieinchildhoodoradolescence.

(ii).Musculardystrophy(MD)–itattacksthemuscles.Asthediseaseprogresses,

theindividualstartsshowingslurredspeech,becomesunabletowalk,and

maygraduallylosemostofthemotorcapabilities.

(iii).Phenylketonuria(PKU)–thechildlacksanenzymetodigestfoodsthat

containtheaminoacidphenylalanine(includingmilk).Ifnotdetectedandthe

childplacedonadietofmilksubstitute,phenylpyruvicacidwillaccumulate

inthebodyandattacksthedevelopingnervoussystem.Longtermeffectsof

PKUarehyperactivityandseverementalretardation.

(iv).Tay-sachsdiseaseisadegenerativediseaseofthenervoussystemthatkills

thevictimbythe3rdbirthday.

(v).Hemophilia(bleeder’sdisease)–thechildlacksasubstancethatcausesthe

bloodtoclotandcanbleedtodeathifcut.Israreinfemales.

(vi).Diabetes–aninheritedconditioninwhichtheindividualisunableto

metabolizesugarproperlybecausethebodydoesnotproduceinsulin.Canbe

controlledbytakinginsulinandrestrictingonesdiet.

(b)Chromosomalabnormalities:-usuallyoccurduringtheprocessofcelldivision

afterconception(meiosisandmitosis).Maybecausedbynon-separationof

chromosomes,deletionofchromosomeswhichmayleadtolossofgenes,and

translocationofchromosomesi.e.deletingandattachingthemselvestothewrong

onesthatisunevensegregationofchromosomes.Someconditionsthattheyresult

include:-

Turner’ssyndrome–XO–thepersonisfemalebutisshort,mentallyretarded

andsterile.

Klinfelter’ssyndrome–XXY–amalewithmaleexternalorgansbutwith

femalebodycontours.Alsosterile.

Downessyndrome(mongolism)–the21stchromosomedoesnotseparateso

thezygoteendsuphavingtwono.21chromosomes(trisomy21).Thechildis

mentallyretardedandmayhavecongenitaleyes,ear,andheartdefects;

slopingforehead,protrudingtongue,shortstubbylimbs,aslightlyflattened

nose,adistinctivefoldtotheeyelidsthatgivestheireyesanoriental

appearance.

N.B:TheprobabilityofhavingachildwithDownessyndromeandklinfelter’s

syndromeincreasesdramaticallyifthemotherisover35years.Thesedefectscan

bedetectedinthefirstthreemonthsofpregnancythroughatestcalled

amniocentesis.

4.2.2.ENVIRONMENTALINFLUENCES(TERATOGENS)

Ateratogenisanexternalagentthatmayadverselyaffectthebabyifthemotheris

exposedduringtheprenatalperiod.Inthissection,wewilllookatsomeoftheteratogens.

1.Maternalcharacteristics:-

(i). Maternalage-youngmothersthatarethosebelow18yearsaremorelikelytodie

atbirth,haveastillbornandneonataldeath.Thisisbecausetheyarenotmature

enough,anddonotreceiveprenatalcare.Oldermotherover35years–mayhave

smallinfants;premature,stillbornandDownssyndrome.

(ii). Mother’semotionalstate:-ifthemotheris,depressed,resentful,anditlasts

throughoutpregnancy,itcanleadtomiscarriage,prolongedorpainfullabor.The

babieswilltentobehyperactiveirritableandhaveirregularsleeping,feeding,and

bowelpatterns.

(iii). Mothersdiet:-retardedfetalgrowth,malformations,lessdevelopedbrain,greater

vulnerabilitytodisease,lowbirthweight,cerebralpalsyandepilepsy.

(iv). Maternaldiseases.Table4.2belowshowssomeofthematernaldiseasesandthe

possibleeffectsonthemother.

Table4.2:Maternaldiseasesandtheireffects.

(v). Drugs:

Thetablebelowshowssomeofthedrugsandtheirpossibleeffects.

Table4.3:Drugsandtheireffectsduringtheprenatalperiod.

Thalidomide.Malformationoflimbs,eyes,earsandheart.

Sexhormones.Forexamplepillswhichmayresulttoheartdefectsanddiethylstilbestrol(DES)–a

synthetichormoneprescribedtopreventmiscarriage.Itcanproducecervicalcancerinadolescentfemale

offspringandgenital.Sexhormonescanresulttotractabnormalitiesandsterilityinmales.

Alcohol–fetalalcoholsyndrome(FAS);microcephally,malformationsoftheheart,limbs,jointsandface.

Tobacco–spontaneousabortion,stillbirthandinfantmortality.Alsolowbirthweight.

Antibiotics–forexamplestreptomycin,terramycinandtetracyclinecanleadtohearingloss,prematurity,

retardedskeletalgrowth,cataractsandstainingofbabies’teeth.

Aspirin–largequantitiesmaycauseremittalbleedingandgastrointestinaldiscomfort.

Narcotics–growthdeficiency,withdrawalsyndrome,respiratorydepression,death.

Barbiturates–largedosesleadtoanoxia;interferewithbaby’sbreathing.

Vitamins–excessivevitaminAcancausecleftpalate,malformedheartandotherseriousbirthdefects.

Radiation–malformationandcancer.

Quinine–largedosescausedeafness.

Chemicals–dyes,foodadditives,paintsandpollutants–ifmotherisexposed,mayaffectthebaby.

4.3.THEBIRTHPROCESS

Althoughababymaybehealthyduringpregnancy,somethingsmayhappenbetweenthe

beginningoflaborandthebirthofthebaby,whichmayaffectthebaby.Theseare:-

1.Anoxia–i.e.lackofsufficientoxygenisdueto:-

Prolongedlabor

Failuretobreathewhenseparatedfrommother’ssupplyofblood.

Useofpainkillersduringbirth.

Toomuchanesthesia.

Consequences:

Mayincludebraindamage,death,andcerebralpalsy–characterizedbyparalysisoflegs

orarms,tremorofthefaceorfingers,andinabilitytousevocalmuscle.

2.Useofinstruments:forcepsandvacuumextractionmaybeusedwhenbabyistoobig

orthemothers’isnotready-welldevelopedtodeliverbaby.

Consequences:

Putstrongpressureonthebaby,bloodvesselsmaybreak–hemorrhageinthebrainof

thebaby.Thisresultstobraindamage,epilepsy,death,andcerebralpalsy.

3.Unhygienicconditions:Mayinfectthebabyforexampletetanus.

4.4.Implications

Whatcanbedonetoensuregrowthanddevelopmentofhealthychildren?

1.Geneticcounselingandscreening–canhelpacouplepredictwhethertheywillhave

achildwithageneticproblem.Canbedonebycheckingfamilyhistoryand

background.Ifthereisariskcangoforamniocentesis,chorionicvillussampling

(CVS),andultrasound.

2.Treatmentandcontrolofhereditarydisorderse.g.PKU–putonspecialdiet,

Hormonaltreatmentforturnersandklinfelterssyndrome.

3.Getchildrenbetween18and35years

4.Goodpre-natalcareandimmunizations.

5.Pregnantmotherstoavoidexposuretocontagiousdiseasese.g.gonorrhea,herpes,

syphilis,toxoplasmosis.

6.Pregnantwomentoavoidtakinganydrugsunlesstheyareabsolutelyessentialand

onlywhenprescribedbyaphysician.Alsoavoidradiationtreatmentsandx-ray

examinationsandnosmokingduringpregnancy.

7.Aprospectivemotherwhoisrhesusnegativeshouldmakesureherphysiciantakes

thenecessarystepstoprotecttheunbornbabyandallsubsequentchildrenfromRh

disease.CanbecontrolledbyadministeringRhogam–adrugthatpreventsthe

motherfromformingrhesusantibodiesthatcouldharmherRh-positivechild.Does

notaffectfirstchild.

8.Anourishingdiet,richinproteinsandadequateincaloriesisessentialduring

pregnancy.

9.Propermedicalcareduringbirthandhygienicconditions.

4.5.Summary

Theprocessofconceptionoccurswhenfertilizationtakesplace.

Therearethreestagesinprenataldevelopmentgerminalstage,embryonicandfetal

stage.

Geneticandchromosomalabnormalitiesmayhavenegativeimpactonthe

developingfetus.

Someprenatalenvironmentalfactorsthatmayaffectthedevelopmentofthehuman

beingincludethefollowing;maternalnutrition,rhesusfactorincompatibility,

maternalage,maternalemotionalstatus,drugsandmaternaldiseases.

Thebirthprocessmaybemarkedbybirthhazardsthatmayhavefarreaching

consequencesforexampleprolongedlabor,anoxiaandmodeofdelivery.

Reviewquestionsandactivities

1.Discussculturalpracticesandtraditionalbeliefsinyourcommunityandtheir

effectsonthegrowthanddevelopmentofachildduringpregnancy.

2.Whatcanbedonetoensuregrowthanddevelopmentofhealthychildrenduring

pregnancyandbirth.

3.Howcanwebestmeetthebasicneedsofbabiesbeforetheyareborn?

4.Homeandhospitalbirths,whatareyourrecommendationsandwhy.

Whatfactorsaffectprenataldevelopment?

LESSONFIVE:THENEONATE

5.0.INTRODUCTION

Inthislesson,wewillstudytheneonate,i.e.anewbornbabyuptoaboutfourweeks.We

willlookattheirphysicalappearance,theirbehavioralcapacitieswhichincludesensory

andreflectivebehaviors.Finallywewilllookatthedevelopmentalneedsthathavetobe

mettoensureahealthydevelopmentofthebaby.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthisunit,thelearnershouldbeableto

1.Describethephysicalappearanceofaneonate.

2.Statesomebehavioralcapacitiesofaneonate.

3.Describethetestusedtoascertainthenormalityofaneonate.

4.Stateimportantneedsnecessaryforthegrowthanddevelopmentofaneonate.

5.1.Physicalappearanceandtestsusedtoascertainnormality

Theaverageweightofanewbornis7to7.5lbsor3.3kgs.Averagelengthis20inor51

cm.Theheadisnormallyaboutaquarterofthetotalsize.Manynewbornsmaylook

abnormalandugly.Theyarewet,stickyandbrown/black.Theskinlookswrinkled;their

headsaremisshapen–ovallike.Theyhaveflattenednoses,theeyeslooksbruisedand

swollen.Theskinisnormallycoatedwithacheese–likeprotectivesubstancecalled

vernixcaseosa.Whenitdriesitleavesthebabywithachalkylikeappearance.

Asoftfinehairthatcoversthefetusbodyduringthe5thand6thmonthsofprenatal

developmentcalledlanugomaypersistonsomepartsofthenewbornbodyforafew

weeksafterbirth.Theneonatehassixsoftspotscalledfontanelsonthehead.Themost

conspicuousistheoneontopofthehead.Itclosesatabout1.5years.Manyneonates

haveenlargedbreaststhatsecretemilklikesubstance.Thegirlsmayhaveabrief

menstrualflowcausedbyhormonesabsorbedfromthemother’sblood.Thehairisdark

andsoftwhileothersarebornbald.

Tofindoutwhethertheneonateisnormalandhasnoproblemsatbirth,theApgarscore

istakenatoneminuteandfiveminutesafterbirth.Theattendantobservesthepulse,

breathing,muscletone,generalreflexresponsesandthecoloroftheskin(forblacksthe

mucousmembranes,palmsorsoles).AperfectApgarscoreis10points;7ormoreis

considerednormal;below7showsthatsomebodilyprocessesarenotfunctioningfully

andrequirewatchingandspecialattention.Ascoreof4orlessrequiresimmediate

emergencemeasures.Table5.1belowillustrateshowthisisdone.

Table5.1:TheApgarscoringsystemofinfants.

5.2BEHAVIORALCAPACITIESOFTHENEONATE

5.2.1ReflexiveBehaviors:

Ababyisequippedwithreflexivebehaviorsatbirth.Areflexisaresponsethatis

automaticandistriggeredinvoluntarilybysomespecificstimulus.Ababyisbornwith

someessentialreflexivebehaviors.Someofthesereflexeshelptoascertainthatitis

normal.Theseare:-

1.TheRootingReflex

Whenthebabyistouchedonthecheek,itturnsitsheadandrootaroundtoputitsmouth

ontheobjectthattouchesit.Thisreflexhelpsinfindingthenipple.Itdisappearsat3to4

months.

2.SuckingReflex

Itbeginsintheuterusanditisessentialforthebaby’ssurvival.Thebabyshowsrhythmic

suckingwhenanythingforexampleafingerornippleisinsertedinthemouth.It

disappears3to4monthsandthebabybeginstosuckselectively.

3.SwallowingReflex.

Theneonateisbornwiththeswallowingreflexbutitdoesnotstopbreathingsoit

swallowsalotofair,whichhastobeburpedout.

NB:Theabove3reflexesareessentialforthechild’ssurvival.Theyarecalledfeeding

reflexes.

4.TheMoroReflex

Whenstartled,e.g.byaloudsound,thebabyreactsbyextendingbotharmstotheside,

withfingersoutstretchedasiftocatchontosomeoneorsomething.Thearmsarethen

broughtbacktothemidlineasiftheyarehuggingthemselves.Itdisappearswithin6

months.

5.BabinskiReflex

Ifthebabyisstrokedonthebottomofthefoot,itwillfirstspreadoutthetoes,thencurls

themin.Anolderchildcurlstheminimmediately.Ifitoccursinanolderchildoran

adult,itisasignofabnormalityintheneurologicalsystem.Shoulddisappearbytheend

offirstyear.

6.Palmergrasp/GraspingReflex.

Ifthebabyistouchedacrossthefootorpalm,thefingersortoesclosetightlyoverthe

objectinaveryfirmgripsuchthatthebabycanhangonit.

NB:Reflexes4,5,and6arecalledprimitivereflexes.Themid-brain,i.e.thepartofthe

brainthatdevelopsfirst,controlsthem.Theyusuallydropoutasthebraindevelops.If

theypersistinlife,itisanindicationofsomemal-developmentordamagetothebrain.

7.BlinkingReflex

Theeyescloseiflightisflashedorairispuffedacrosstheeyes.Thisisapermanent

reflexivebehavior.

8.KneeJerk

Thereisarapidextensionofthelegandkneesifthekneecapistapped.Thisisa

permanentreflex.

9.SteppingReflex

Whennewbornsareheldvertically,withtheirfeetagainstahardsurface,theyliftoneleg

awayfromthesurface,andiftiltedslightlyfromonesidetotheother,theyappeartobe

walking.

10.DivingReflex

Theheartrateslowsdownwhencoldwaterissplashedonthefaceofthebaby.This

reflexbecomesweakerwithage.

11.SwimmingReflex

5.2.2SensoryCapacitiesoftheNeonate

Babieshaveallsensoryabilitiesatbirth.

1.Hearing–Babieshearsincetheyarestartledbyaloudsound.Theygenerallyrespond

tohigherandnotlowersounds.Theycanlocatesoundsby6months.

2.Vision–Neonateseyesaresensitivetobrightness.Thepupilscontractinbrightlight

anddilateindarkness.By2weeks,thebabycriesiftheyseearapidlyapproaching

object.Theyhavesomecontrolovereyemovements.Theyarenotabletofocusboth

eyesonthesamepointuntiltheendofthe2ndmonth.Theyhavearudimentaryability

tomovebotheyesinthesamedirection.Theyareabletofocusonlyoncloseobjects,

usually7to20inchesaway–mother’sface.Theyprobablydonotseecolorsatall,

onlyblack,whiteandgray.Theybegintorespondtocolorsaroundthe3rdweek.

Theyprefertolookatcomplexpatterns.Theyaremostsensitivetotheedgesand

contourofobjectsespeciallycurves–calledcontourscanning.Thebabyisunableto

seewellatbirthbecause:

a.Theireyesaresmallerthanthoseofadultssotheyreceiveimagesonfewer

cells.

b.Theprotectivemyelinsheathcoveringthenervefibersthattransmitimagesto

thebrainisnotyetformed.Thissheathisthoughttoinsulatethenervefibers

andinsurethatimpulsestravelingalongonenervepathdonot“leak”outto

another.

3.SmellandTaste–Thesearefullyoperational.Theyreactwithsomedistressto

unpleasantodorslikeammoniaandrotteneggs.Theycandifferentiatebetween

sweet,salty,sourandbittertastes.Theywillgrimace.

4.Touch–Ishighlydevelopedastheyrespondtothereflexes.Whenheldtheystop

crying.Theyareinitiallynotverysensitivetopain.Iftemperatureistooloworhigh,

theywillrespondbyshowingirritabilityandevencrying.

5.3OTHERSKILLSOFTHENEONATE

1.Learning–At4days,babiesareabletolearnthroughclassicalconditioning.An

experimentbyLipsittandKay–suckingreflex(UCRCR);nipple(UCS);andtone

(CS).

2.Habituation–Reachingastageofnotrespondingtoastimulusandnothearingit.

Resultsautomaticallyfromrepeatedexposuretothesamestimuli.

Baby’sCycles

Theneonatemustestablishclearregularcyclesofsleepingandwaking.Failureshowsa

signoftrouble.REM–rapideyemovements,i.e.aflutteringoftheeyeballsunderthe

closedlids,characterizesalargepercentageofsleeptime.Atypicalneonatecycleis

sleep–wake–eat–alert–drowsy–sleep.

LimitationsoftheNeonate

1.Lacksvocalsoundssavecrying

2.Cannotraisehead,rollover,ormovethumbandfingersseparately.

3.Cannotreachoutatthingsatadistance

4.Cannotcontrolelimination

5.Cannotdifferentiateonefacefromanother

6.Cannotremember.

SexDifferencesatBirth

1.Girlsaresmallerandlighterthanboysbutareamonthto6weeksaheadinbody

development.

2.Moreboyshavephysicalabnormalitiesthangirls.TheyscorelowonApgarscoresat

birth.33%ofboysdiewithinthefirstyear

IndividualDifferencesatBirth

Babiesdifferinthefollowingaspectsduetotheirgeneticmakeupandconditionsinthe

womb:

1.Vigorofresponding

2.Generalactivityrate

3.Sleepingrhythms

4.Irritability

5.Rateofhabituation

6.Cuddliness

7.Sensitivitytolightorsound

8.Insizeandshape

9.Inabsoluteandrelativesizeofbodyorgans

10.Inhormonalbalance

11.Inbloodchemistry

5.4Summary

Afterthebirthofababy,theApgarneonatalscaleisusedtoascertainnormalityof

thebaby.

Thebabyisbornwithanumberofreflexes,whichhelpsittosurviveandhelpto

assessitsdevelopmentallevel.

Mostofthebabies’sensorycapacitiesarefunctionalatbirth.

Thefollowingphysiologicalandpsychologicalneedshavetobemet;food,water,

air,propertemperature,loveandaffection,praiseandrecognition,newexperiences

andintellectualstimulant,activityandrest,security.

ReviewQuestions

1.Identifyculturalpracticesandtraditionalbeliefsinyourcommunityduringbirth

andtheneonatalperiodanddiscusshowtheymayinfluencethegrowthand

developmentofchildren.

2.Towhatextentarethedevelopmentalneedsmetinyourcommunity.

LESSONSIX:PHYSICALANDMOTORDEVELOPMENT

6.0INTRODUCTION

Inthislesson,wewilldiscussphysicalandmotordevelopmentfrominfancytothe

adolescentstage.Thefollowingaspectswillbeconsidered:-changesinheightand

weight;developmentofgrossandfinemotorskillsandfactorthatinfluencephysical

motordevelopment.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislessonthelearnershouldbeableto:

1.Discusschangesinweightandheightasindicatorsofgrowthinchildhood

andadolescence.

2.Explaintheprocessofbrain,skeletalandmusculardevelopment

3.Discussthedevelopmentofmotorskillsatvariousages

4.Discusstheroleoflearningandmaturationonphysicalandmotor

development.

6.1CHANGESINHEIGHTANDWEIGHT

Atbirththeheadappearstoobigwhencomparedtotherestofthebody.Bodyshape

changesfollowingtheCephalocaudaltrendofdevelopment.Thefirsttwoyearsare

markedbyagrowthspurt,whichisanacceleratedincreaseinweightandheight.The

averageweightofaneonateisabout3.3Kgs(7-7.5lb)andtheaveragelengthis20inor

51cm.At4-6monthsbabieswilldoubletheirweightandaddabout4inches.Bytwelve

months,thechildwilltripletheirweight.Lengthisabout20-29inches.Bytwentyfour

months,theweightisfourtimes,andthelengthisabout32-36ins.

6.1.2DevelopmentoftheBrainandtheNervousSystem

Atbirth,thebrainisabout25%itseventualadultweight.At1yearitisabout66%,2.5

years76%and5years90%.Thelastthreemonthsofpregnancyandthefirsttwoyears

afterbirthisabraingrowthspurt.Propernutrition--thatisadequateandbalanceddietis

crucialatthisstage.Differentpartsofthebraindevelopatdifferenttimes.Theearliestto

developarethepartsthatcontrolprimarybodilymovementsandtheprimarysensory

areassuchasvisionandhearing.Thepartsthatdirectthevariousthinkingprocesses

developlater.

Myelinization(thedevelopmentofsheathsaroundindividualnerves,whichinsulatethem

fromoneanother)followsachronologicalsequencesimilartotheoneofthebrain.

Myelinizationenablesmessagestopassdownthenerveseasily.Atbirththespinalcordis

notfullymyelinized.Thesheathcoversfirstthenervefibersinthehead,shoulderregion,

arms,hands,upperchest,abdomen,andlegsthenfeet.Soinfantwillliftheadandneck

beforetrunk.By2years,myelinationisalmostcomplete.

6.1.3SkeletalDevelopment

Atbirththebonesaresoftandeasytobreak.Theyaretoosmallandflexible.Thebones

hardengraduallyfollowingtheCephalocaudaltrendofdevelopment.Forexamplethe

bonesoftheskullmaturefirst,followedbythoseofthehandsandfinallythoseofthe

legs.Foodsrichinmineralsaltsareimportant.

6.1.4MuscularDevelopment

Atbirth,themuscletissueis35%water.Musclefibersbegintogrowasthecellfluidin

themuscletissueisreplacedwithproteinandsalts.Musculardevelopmentproceedsina

Cephalocaudaldirection.Maturationoccursgraduallyoverchildhoodbutacceleratesat

adolescence.

NB:

Achild’sabilitytoperformaphysicaltaskdependsnotonlyonthematurationofthe

neuronsinthebrain,butalsointhematurationofthemuscleandskeletalsystems.Sucha

stateofmaturationisknownasreadiness.Untilchildrenreachastateofreadinessthey

willbeunabletoperformatask,evenwithtrainingorpractice.

6.2PHYSICALBEHAVIOR–MOTORDEVELOPMENT

Motordevelopmentinvolvesdevelopmentoftwotasks:-

1.Locomotion-involvesbodycontrolandmovement.Thefollowingareagenorms(in

months)forimportantmotormilestoneswhen90%ofthechildrenhavemasteredthe

skill:

Table6.1:Appearanceofimportantmotormilestones.

2.Prehension-Involvesreachingoutactivities,holding,seizingandgrasping.These

activitiesinvolveeye-handco-ordination.Theybeginwiththegraspingreflexand

uncoordinatedarm–movements.

At1month,theinfantwillnotgrabanobject.Willjuststareatit.

At2months,willgrabanobjectplacedonthehand.

3monthstheybegintoreachoutforobjects

4to6monthswillgraspobjectsbutsometimescannotletgo

7monthstheycanpickobjectswiththeirfingers.Theybeginbyusingtheirpalmsand

fingersthenusetheindexfingerwiththesideofthepalm.

9months,theycanpickwiththeirthumbandforefinger.

6.3IMPORTANCEOFMOTORDEVELOPMENT

1.Stimulatesintellectualgrowthandcreativity

2.Encouragessocialization,independence,andself-confidence.

3.Promotesgoodmentalhealth

4.Strengthensselfconcept

6.4FACTORSAFFECTINGPHYSICALANDMOTORDEVELOPMENT

1.Heredity--determinestherateofgrowthandmaturation,boneage,heightetc.

2.Nutrition-shouldbebalancedandsufficientotherwisewillleadtostuntedgrowth,

kwashiorkor,rickets,marasmusobesityetc.

3.Diseases–prolongedillnessinterfereswithsteadygrowth

4.Childrearingpractices-practice,stimulation

5.Stress-affectshormonalsecretionscausingphysicaldwarfism.

Implications

Forproperphysicalandmotordevelopment,thefollowingfactorsneedtobeconsidered:

·Importanceofmaturation

Importanceofindividualdifferences

· Importanceofadequateandbalanceddiet

· Medicalattentionandimmunization

· Hygienicconditions

· Provisionofarichenvironment

· Encouragementofplayandmanipulationofobjects.

Summary

Inthislesson,wehavediscussedchangesinweightandheight.brain,skeletal

andmusculardevelopment;theprogressionofmotordevelopmentandfinallyfactors

influencingphysicalmotordevelopment.Implicationsforoptimalphysicalandmotor

developmentwerealsodiscussed.

ReviewActivity

1)Identifychildrenatdifferentagegroupsinyourcommunityanddescribetheir

physicalandmotorchangesandcharacteristics.

2)Explainanyfactorsthatmayhavecontributedtotheirgrowthanddevelopment.

LESSONSEVEN:PERCEPTUALDEVELOPMENT

7.0INTRODUCTION

Arenewbornbeenwithcertainperceptualcapacitiesoraretheyacquiredthrough

learningexperience.Whatcannewbornsperceive?

Thislessondiscussesperceptualdevelopmentinchildren.Firstwewilllookatthe

definitionsandtheoreticalexplanations;perceptualchangesinperceptualdevelopment;

depthperception;objectandvisualperceptionand1finally,wewilllookatfactorsthat

influenceperception.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislesson,thelearnersshouldbeableto:

a)Differentiatebetweensensationandperception.

b)Explaintheempiricistsandnatiristicapproachtoperceptualdevelopment

c)Discusschangesinperceptualdevelopment

d)Discussdepth,objectandvisualperception

e)Explainthefactorsthataffectperceptualdevelopment.

7.1DEFINITIONANDTHEORIESOFPERCEPTUALDEVELOPMENT

Sensation-Referstotheprocessthroughwhichinformationabouttheenvironmentis

pickedupbysensoryreceptorsandtransmittedtothebrain.Infantshavesensory

abilities,thatis,theyrespondtolight,sound,smell,touchandtaste.

Perception:Referstotheinterpretationofthenerveimpulseswereceivethroughthe

senseorgansintorecognizablepatternssuchasobjects,words,smellsetc.

7.2PERCEPTUALDEVELOPMENT

Therearefourmaintheoriesofperceptualdevelopment:-

1.Traditionaltheories

Theybelievethatourperceptionofobjectsisdevelopedthroughlearningbyassociating

themultiplesensationsthatanobjectevokes.Forexampleinperceivinganorange,one

hastoperceiveandassociatealltherelatedparts.

2.GestaltPsychology

Theyclaimthatweperceiveobjectsbyorganizingprinciplesthatresultfromthebrain’s

naturalorganizationalprocessesinfluencedbyinnateprinciples.Theybelievethatthe

brainhasaninnateabilitytoorganizeobjectsaswholesandnotparts–throughthe

principlesofproximity,similarity,continuityandclosure.

3.Empiricists

Theyarguethatinfantsareborn“blankslates”thenexperiencesareimprintedonthem.

Later,theylearntodiscriminatebetweensensoryinputs.Thus,perceptiondevelopsasa

resultofalonglearningprocess.

4.Nativity’s

Arguethatmanyperceptualabilitiesarepresentatbirthduetostructuralcharacteristics

ofthenervoussystem.Infantstrytocreateorderandorganizationintheirperceptual

world.AccordingtoEleanorGibson(1969)achildperceivesanobjectwhenheorshe

detectsitsunchangingfeature,notingthearrangementandmovementofitssurfaces.

AccordingtoEleanorGibson,perceptualdevelopmentisaprocessbywhichonelearnsto

makeincreasinglyfineandcomplexdiscriminations.Atfirst,ababyperceivesonlygross

differencesForexamplebetweensoundandsilence.Withexperience,achildlearnshow

todiscriminateForexamplebetweenmusicalsoundsandothersounds,thenwilllearn

howtodiscriminatebetweenonenoteandanother.

Likeadultschildrenareexposedtoacontinualflowofperceptualstimulus,buttheydo

notperceiveeverystimulus.Theirperceptionofthesamestimuluschangeswithage.

AccordingtoGibsonandSpelke(1983),althoughperceptualdevelopmentappears

continuous,fivechangescanbeseen:

1.Aschildrengrow,theirperceptionbecomesmoreselectiveandmorepurposeful.

Theyfocusonstimulithathavemorefunctionalvalue.

2.Childrenbecomeincreasinglyawareofthemeaningoftheirperceptions,For

examplewhetherpleasurable,usefulorpainful.

3 Perceptionbecomesmoresensitiveaschildrendevelop.Theybegintodetect

increasinglysubtleaspectsofstimuliForexamplethebangingofdoorsmeaning

annoyance.

4.Childrenbecomemoreefficientinpickingupcriticalinformationfromstimuli,

Forexampleanambulancesiren,agunshot.

5.Childrenbecomemoreproficientatgeneralizingperceivedmeaningsfromone

situationtoanother.

Atbirth,bothperceptionandsensationarepresent.Newbornssee,hear,smellandtaste

butmostoftheirsensoryabilitiesareimmature.Theirperceptionisveryselective,For

examplewillpayattentiontobrightlights,loudsounds,andobjectswithinafootoftheir

eyes.Thesenseoftouchismoredevelopedatbirth.Visionistheleastdevelopedatbirth.

Atthreemonths,theybegintorespondtomother’sfacialexpressions.Atfourmonths,

theybegintousebotheyesbetter.

Hearingisquiteacute.Suddennoisesstartlenewbornsandmakethemcry.Rhythmic

soundsForexamplealullabyorheartbeatsoothesthemandputsthemtosleep.Byone

month,theycandistinguishmother’svoice.Byfourmonths,theycanidentifythevoices

ofthemostfamiliarpeopleintheirlives.

Byoneyear,thephysicalsensesarealmostfullydeveloped.Theeyescanfocus

accurately,theycanproperlyregisterlineandcolor,candistinguishvariationsinpitch

andsound,andthenervoussystemcancarrysignalspromptly-totheconedreceiving

centerinthebrain.

Duringthepre-schoolyears,perceptualawarenessdevelopstothepointatwhichinitial

perceptionsusuallytriggerachainofcomplexmentalprocessesaimedatproblem

solvingoratacquiringafullerunderstandingofthesituation.TheChild’sperception

becomesfiner,sharperandmorereliable.

Perceptualdevelopmentiscloselylinkedtomotordevelopment.Theincreasedmobility

exposesthechildtoalargerenvironmentwithmoreobjectstoperceive,moreactionto

perform,andhencemoreopportunityforschematatobeformed.Afavorable

environmentrichinintellectualaswellasemotionalstimulationisaimportantfactorin

thefulldevelopmentofthechild’spotential

7.3DEVELOPMENTOFDIFFERENTTYPESOFPERCEPTION

1.ObjectPermanency

Thisistherealizationthatobjectscontinuetoexistevenwhenoutofsight.The

processisasfollows:-

0-4months:Achildactsasthoughobjectdoesnotexistifcoveredupordisappears

fromview.

4-8months:Beginstosearchforanobjectsheorhesawdisappear.Ifonedropsa

clothonanobject,thechildwithdrawsthehandwithouttheobject.

8-12months:Willsearchforanobjectthathasdisappeared.Butifitishiddenagain

inanewplace,willlookintheoriginalplace.

12-18months:Willsearchforanobjectthathasdisappeared.Butifitishiddenwhen

notlooking,willnotlookfurther.

By24months:Childhasobjectpermanency.Willsearchforanobjecteverywhere.

2.DevelopmentofDepthPerception

Depthperceptionistheabilitytojudgerelativedistances.Camposetalnotedthat

everyyoungchild(upto5months)mayshowinterestindepthcues,butdonotfear

until6monthsofage.

GibsonandWalk(1960)carriedoutanexperimentondepthperception.Theyused

thevisualcliff,whichcreatesanillusionofdepth.Itconsistsofaraisedplatform,half

ofwhichispatterned(checkerboardsurface)andhalfisaglass.Undertheglasspart,

asharpdropinthepatternedsurfaceproducestheillusionofacliff.Infantsareplaced

onthepatternedsideandcalledtothedeepside.

Results

Veryyoungchildrenupto5monthslookintentlyattheillusioncliff.Heartrate

decreasesshowingthattheyperceivethedifferencearepuzzledbuttheydonotcry.

Olderchildren,6–8monthswillnotcrossevenafterfeelingthesolidglassbelow

andseeingtheirmothertheotherside.9months–theirheartratespeedsup–afraid.

NB:

Depthperceptionisimportantbecauseitwarnsbabiesofimminentdangerfor

examplefallingofftablesorchairs.Babieswhohavedepthperceptionwillsitonthe

edgeandcryforhelp.

3.DevelopmentofPicturePerception

AccordingtoPiaget,children’srecognitionofpicturesasrealisnotpredetermined

thoughitisinnate.Dominantfeaturesinthepicturefirstcapturetheirattention.

AccordingtoSpelke,babieslearnhowtodifferentiatepicturedobjectsatthesame

timetheylearnthedistinctivefeaturesofrealobjects.

Atsixtosevenyears,childrencanactmentallyuponthepictureandnotjustthe

dominantfeatures.Theycananalyzeit,integrateitsfeaturesandreversefigureand

groundatwill.Judgingdepthinpicturesdependsonlearningbecausethechildhasto

disregardinformationthatbetraystheflatnatureofthepicture.Olderchildrenare

awareofmovementindrawingssuchaslegnotongroundbutdonotperceiveit

whenindicatedbycloudsofdustorlines.By12yearstheyareabletodetectmotion

inboth.

4.DevelopmentofPerceptualConstancy’s

PerceptualConstancy’s–treatingthingsasunchanging.

a)ShapeConsitancy–beginsat3monthsanddevelopsslowly.Whenshown

irregularshapes,treatedthemasnew.Improveswithlearningandmaturation.

b)PositionConstancy-from6months.Improveswithmaturation,experienceand

learning.

c)SizeConstancy–occurshensomeonewalkingawayseemssmallerbutseeshim

samesizethoughtheretinalimagebecomessmaller.Sizeconstancybeginsat5

monthsanddevelopssteadilywithtime.By6–8monthshassizeconstancy.

7.4FACTORSINFLUENCINGPERCEPTUALDEVELOPMENT

i.Motivation/Need

ii.Expectation

iii.Genetic–maturationandexperience

iv.Culture

v.Context

vi.Stimulating–richenvironment

7.5Summary

Perceptionistheinterpretationbythebrainofsensoryinput.

Infantsarebornwithandrangeofperception,whichimproveswithlearning

experience.

ReviewQuestion

Discusstheroleofenvironmentandheredityinperceptualdevelopment.

LESSONEIGHT:COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT

8.0INTRODUCTION

Cognitionisamentalactivitythroughwhichhumanbeingsacquireandprocess

informationandknowledgesoastounderstandtheworld.Inthislesson,wewillexamine

Piaget’stheoryofcognitivedevelopmentanditsimplicationstoteachingandlearning.

Finallywewilllookatfactorsthatinfluencecognitivedevelopment.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislesson,thestudentshouldbeableto:

1.Definetheterms/conceptscognitionandcognitivedevelopment.

2.Listandexplainthemajorcharacteristicsofandachievementsineachof

Piagetsstagesofdevelopment

3.Discussvariousfactorsthatinfluencecognitivedevelopment

4.ExplainhowPiaget’stheorycanbeappliedineducationalsettings.

8.1DEFINITIONOFTERMS

Cognition:Theactivityofknowing,orthementalprocessesbywhichknowledgeis

acquired.

Operations:Mentalskillsoractions(comparewithphysicalactions).

CognitiveDevelopment:Referstothechangesthatoccurinchildren’smentalskillsand

abilitiesovertimesuchasattending,perceiving,learning,thinkingandremembering.

CognitiveEquilibrium:Piaget’stermforthestateofaffairsinwhichthereisabalanced

orharmoniousrelationshipbetweenonesthoughtprocessesandtheenvironment.

SchemaISchemataICognitiveStructure:Abasicunitofknowledge,action,beliefor

image.Piaget’stermforthepatternsofactionsormentalstructuresthatareinvolvedin

theacquisitionofknowledge.Forexampleachildformsschemesofthingsthatcanbe

sucked,graspedetc.

Reversibility:Theabilitytoreverseornegateanactionbymentallyperformingthe

oppositeaction

ObjectPermanency:Understandingthatobjectscontinuetoexistevenwhenoutof

sight.

Adaptation:Onesinborntendencytoadjusttothedemandsoftheenvironment.

Assimilation:Theprocessofinterpretingnewexperiencesbyincorporatingtheminto

existingschemataForexampleseeshorseandreferstoitasdoggie.

Accommodation:Theprocessofmodifyingexistingschematainordertoincorporateor

adapttonewexperiences.Realizesdifferencesofhorseanddoggiethatiscreatenew

schemata.

Conservation:TherecognitionthatthepropertiesForexampleweight,length,volume

ofanobjectorsubstancedoesnotchangewhenitsappearanceisalteredinsome

superficialway.

Centration:Thetendencytofocusononlyoneaspectofaproblemwhentwoormore

aspectsofaproblematatime.

Decentration:Theabilitytoconsidermorethanoneaspectofaproblematatime.

PrimaryCircularReaction:Apleasurableresponsecenteredontheinfant’sownbody

thatisdiscoveredbychanceandperformedoverandoveragain.

SecondaryCircularReaction:Apleasurableresponsecenteredonanexternalobject

thatisdiscoveredbychanceandperformedoverandoveragain.

TertiaryCircularReaction:Anexploratoryschemainwhichtheinfantdevisesanew

methodofactingonobjectstoreproduceinterestingresults.

HypotheticalDeductiveReasoning:Astyleofproblemsolvinginwhichthepossible

solutionstoaproblemaregeneratedandthensystematicallyevaluatedtodeterminethe

correctanswer.

8.2PIAGET’SSTAGESOFCOGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT

Piagetidentifiedfourmajorperiods(stages)ofcognitivedevelopment.Accordingto

Piaget,thesestagesforminvariantdevelopmentalsequencesthatisallchildrenprogress

throughthestagesinpreciselythesameorder.Therecanbenoskippingofstages

becauseeachsuccessivestagebuildsontheaccomplishmentsofpreviousstages.There

arealsoindividualdifferencesinthatenvironmentalinfluencesmayaccelerateorretarda

child’srateofdevelopment.Sotheagenormsareonlyroughapproximations.Thestages

areasfollows:-

Thedifferencesinstagesarebothqualitativeandquantitative.

1.TheSensory-MotorStage(Birthto2years):-Thedominantstructuresatthis

stagearebehavioralschemataoractionschemes(compareconceptsinolderchildrenand

adults)whichevolveasinfantsbegintoco-ordinatetheirsensoryinputandmotor

responsesinorderto“acton”andgettoknowtheenvironment.Duringthistime,infants

evolvefromreflexivecreaturesintoreflectiveplanfulproblemsolverswhohavelearned

alotaboutthemselvesandtheirenvironment.Thefollowingaresomeimportant

attainmentsatthisperiod:

a).Growthofproblemsolvingskills:-

Duringthefirstmonth,children’sactivitiesareconfinedtoexercisingtheirinnate

reflexessuchassuckingonobjects.

Thefirstnon-reflexiveschemataemergesat1-4monthsofageasinfantsdiscoverby

chancethattheycanemitandcontrolvariousresponsesForexamplesuckingthumbs,

blowingbubblesetc.Theyrealizethesebehaviorsaresatisfyingandworthofrepetition.

Thesesimplerepetitiveactsarecalledprimarycircularreactionsandarealways

centeredontheinfant’sbody.Theyarecalledprimarybecausetheyarethefirstmotor

habitsthatappearandcircularbecausethepleasuretheybringstimulatestheirrepetition.

Between4—8monthsinfantsalsodiscoverthat(alsobychance)thattheycanmake

interestingthingshappentoexternalobjectsForexamplemakingarubberduckquackby

squeezingit.Theseresponsesarecalledsecondarycircularreactionsandarealso

repeatedforthepleasuretheybring.

8-2monthstrulyplanfulrespondingfirstappearsasinfantsbegintoco-ordinatetwoor

moreactionstoachievesimpleobjectivesForexampleifyouplaceatoyunderacushion

thechildmaytrytoliftthecushionwithonehandwhileusingtheothertograbthetoy.

Thisisanintentionalschemainwhichtwounrelatedresponses,liftingandgrasping—

areco-ordinatedasameanstoanend.

12—18months,infantsbegintoexperimentwithobjects(trialanderror

experimentation).Theywilltrytoinventtotallynewmethodsofsolvingproblemsor

reproducinginterestingresultsForexampleinsteadofjustsqueezingarubberduckto

makeitquack,maydecidetosteponit,crushittoseewhethertheseactionswillhavethe

sameeffects.Thesetrialanderrorexploratoryschemataarecalledtertiarycircular

reactions.Theysignaltheemergenceoftruecuriosity.

18-24monthschildrenbegintointernalizetheirbehavioralschematatoconstructmental

symbolsorimages,thatis,innerexperimentation.Theybecomeabletosolveproblems

withoutresortingtotrialanderroractivitiesForexamplestickandbread,breadoutof

reach;decidestousesticktobringbreadnearortoyontablecannotreachdecidestopull

tableclothtobringtoynear.The“problemsolving”occursataninternalsymboliclevel.

b)Developmentofimitation:-Thereis

i).VoluntaryImitation:-becomesmorepreciseatage12-18months.

ii).DeferredImitation:-theabilitytoproducethebehaviorofanabsentmodel.First

appearsat18—24months.Thisisbecausenowtheyareconstructingmental

symbolsorimagesofamodel’sbehaviorthatarestoredinmemoryandretrieved

latertoguidethechild’srecreationofmodeledsequenceForexampletemper

tantrums.Butotherinvestigatorsclaimthatdeferredimitationappearsmuchearlier

9-14months(Meltzoff1985,88).

c).ObjectPermanence:Outofsightisnolongeroutofmind.Oneofthemorenotable

achievementsofthesensory—motorperiodisthedevelopmentoftheobject

permanency—theidesthatpeople,placesandthingscontinuetoexistwhentheyare

nolongervisibleordetectablethroughothersenses.By18-24months,object

permanencyiscomplete.

2.PRE-OPERATIONALSTAGE(2-7YEARS)

Duringthisstagechildrenbecomemoreproficientatconstructingandusingmental

symbolstothinkabouttheobjects,situationsandeventstheyencounter.Piaget

dividesthisperiodintotwosubstages:thepre-conceptualperiod(2-4yrs)andthe

intuitiveperiod(4-7years).

a)ThePre-ConceptualPeriod(2-4yrs)

Thisperiodismarkedbytheappearanceofthesymboliclanguagefunction.The

abilitytomakeonething—awordoranobjectstandsfor,orrepresentsomething

elseForexamplewordscometorepresentobjects,persons,events.Thechildcannow

reconstructandtalkaboutthepastandtalkaboutitemsthatarenotpresent.Pretend

playalsoblossomsatthistime.Willpretendtobemum,dad,baby,doctoretc.and

willuseanypropstosymbolizeotherobjectsForexampleshoeboxtorepresent

baby’scrib,pieceofwoodtorepresentlorry,cornhuskbabyetc.

ContributionofplaytoCognitiveDevelopment:-

· Permitschildrentopracticetheircompetenciesinarelaxedandcarefreeway

· Helpstonurturecuriosityobjectpermanence,innerexperimentationetc.

· Helpschildrentodevelopadditionalcognitiveandsocialskills

· Helpsintheresolutionofconflictsandinthecompensationofunsatisfiedneeds

andtheinversionofrolesForexampleobedienceandauthority.

· Enableschildrentotryoutrolesthatotherpeopleplaywhileencouragingthemto

thinkaboutthefeelingsoftheindividualswhoactuallylivetheseroles.(Role

Taking)

Limitationsinthepre-conceptualreasoning:-

i.Animism:attributinglifeandlifelikequalitiesForexamplemotives,feelings,

intentions)toinanimateobjects.Forexampledon’tthrowthestoneitwillfeelpain,

thesunisangrythatiswhyitishiding.

ii.Doesnotseparatefantasyfromreality.Dreamsconsideredreal.

iii.Transductivereasoning:reasoningfromtheparticulartothe,particular.Whentwo

eventsoccurcloselytogether,thechildassumestheyarecasuallyrelated,thatis,

onecausedtheother.Forexamplenappingintheafternoon,ifmissesthenapinthe

afternoonthenitisn’tafternoon.

iv.Egocentrism:atendencytoviewtheworldfromonesperspectiveandtohave

difficultyrecognizinganotherperson’spointofview.Theyarenotawarethatothers

mayhaveideasthataredifferentfromtheirsForexamplewhentellingastory,will

leaveimportantinformationasifonewasthereorwillask,”didn’tyousee?”

Speechisnotadaptedtolistener.

b)TheIntuitivePeriod(4-7Years)

Thechild’sthinkingiscalled“intuitive”becausehisunderstandingofobjectsand

eventsis“centered”ontheirsinglemostsalientperceptualfeatureForexamplecolor.

Theyfocusonthewaythingsappeartobe—ratherthanonlogicalorrationalthought

processes.Thelimitationsofaperceptuallybased,intuitivelogicisapparentwhen4-7

yearoldsworkonclassinclusionproblemsthatrequirethemtothinkaboutwhole/part

relations.

· Theydonotunderstandthedifferencebetweenaclassandarepresentativeofthat

class.

· Theirthinkingiscenteredononesalientfeatureandfailstoconsiderother

features.

· Theycannotconserve.Thisisbecausetheyareincapableofmentallyreversingor

undoingtheflowofaction,argumentandthereforedonotrealizethattheliquidin

theshort,broadcontainerwouldattainitsformerheightwhenpouredbackintoa

tallthincontainer.Theyarealsounabletoattendsimultaneouslytobothheight

andwidth.Theyarenotabletodecentre.

3.TheConcreteOperationalStage(7-11Years)

ThisstageiscalledconcreteoperationsbecausePiagetbelievesthatchildrenatthis

stagecanapplytheiroperationsonlytoobjects,situationsandeventsthatarerealor

imaginable.Someachievementsofthisstageare:-

a).Classinclusion

Theyunderstandpartorwholerelationshipsandthedifferencebetweenaclassanda

representativeoftheclass.

b).Conservation

Theycanconserveliquids,mass,number,volumeandarea.

c)Mentalrepresentationofactions.

Theconcreteoperationalchildcanconstructaccuratementalrepresentationofa

complexseriesofactionsForexamplecansketchamapoftheroutetoschoolwhilea

pre-operationalchildmaynot.

d).RelationalLogic.

Oneofthehallmarksofoperationalthinkingisabetterunderstandingofrelationsand

relationallogic.Concreteoperatorsarecapableofserration,anoperationthatenables

themtoarrangeasetofstimulialongaquantifiabledimensionsuchaslength.A

relatedabilityistheconceptoftransitivity,whichdescribestherelationshipsinserial

orderForexampleifJohnistallerthanSamwhoistallerthanmarkthenjohnmustbe

tallerthanMark.

Thetransitiveinferences(thinking/logic)ofconcreteoperatorsaregenerallylimited

torealobjectsthatarephysicallypresent.Cannotapplythislogictoverbalproblems

ortoabstractsignifierssuchastheX’sY’sinalgebra.

4.THEFORMALOPERATIONALSTAGE(12ANDBEYOND)

ThisisthelastofPiaget’sintellectualstages.Thinkingisnolongertiedtothe

observableorimaginable.Formaloperatorscannowreasonquitelogicallyabout

abstractideasthatmayhavenobasisinreality.Theyenjoythinkingabout

hypotheticalandarelikelytodevelopsomeveryunusualandcreativeresponses.

Theirapproachtoproblemsolvingbecomesincreasinglysystematicandabstract-

likethehypothetical-deductivereasoningofascientist.

Insummaryformaloperatorscansolvecomplexverbalproblemsinvolvingthe

future,thepastandthepresent.Theirthinkingisrational,systematicandabstract.

Canthinkaboutthinkingandoperateideasaswellastangibleobjectsandevents.

Limitations

Atthebeginningof’thisperiod,ego-centrismintheformofnaïveidealismisvery

highandaffectstheirreasoningcapabilities.Naïveidealismistheinabilityofthe

adolescenttodifferentiatebetweenhisownidealisticthoughtsandthe“realworld”.

Thecriterionformakingjudgmentsiswhatislogicalandnotwhatisrealistic.

Anothercharacteristicofthisegocentrismispersonalfable—beliefthatoneis

uniqueandhasapersonalmissioninlifesoproblemscannotbefallthemForexample

pregnancy,death,aidsetc.

Imaginaryaudienceisthethirdcharacteristic.Thisisabeliefthatthosearoundare

focusingononeselflikeanimaginaryaudiencewatchingcausedbyextreme

consciousness.Feelsthateveryoneiswatchingwhatonesaysanddoes.Thesethree

formsofegocentrismdecreaseasoneencounter“hardreality”.

8.3FACTORSINFLUENCINGCOGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT

1.Biologicalfactors—maturationofnervoussystem

2.Socio-culturalfactorssocialinteraction,educationalfactors/schooling,and

culturalfactors

3.Experiencesinthephysicalenvironment-richandpoorenvironments,mental

stimulation

ApplicationofPiaget’stheorytoteachingandlearning

1.Whentoteach,whattoteach.Curriculummaterialstoconsiderchild’slevelof

development.Readinessisimportant.

2.Howtoteach-teachingmethodsandmaterialsconsiderchild’slevelof

development.Childshouldbeactivelyinvolved-interactingwithobjectsand

materialsthatislearningresources.Childrenshouldbeencouragedtodiscover.

3.Encouragepeerinteraction—reducesegocentrism.

4.Considerindividualdifferencesbecausechildrenbecausechildrendevelopat

differentrates.

8.4Summary

Childrenareactiveprocessorsofinformation.

Cognitivedevelopmentfollowsaninvariantsequenceofstages.

ReviewQuestions

1)DiscussthevariousstagesofPiaget’stheorytoteachingandlearning.

2)Discussfactorsfromyourlocalcommunitythatmayaffectchildren’s

cognitivedevelopment.

LESSONNINE:LANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT

9.0INTRODUCTION

Languageisusedthroughoutthehumanlifespanforcommunication;thinking;problem

solving;creativeactivitiesandwriting.Languageacquisitionsignificantlyaltersthe

child’scognitiveandsocialexperiencesandhelpschildrentoformaviewofthemselves.

Inthislessonwewilltracethepathoflanguagedevelopment.Thiswillbefollowedby

theoreticalexplanationsoflanguageacquisition,andfinallyfactorsinfluencinglanguage

development.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislesson,thestudentshouldbeableto:

1)Definedifferenttermsinlanguagedevelopment

2)Describethestagesoflanguagedevelopment.

3)Discussandevaluatethebasicfeaturesoftheoriesoflanguageacquisition

4)Discussfactorsinfluencinglanguagedevelopment

9.1DEFINITIONOFTERMS

Language-Languageisasystemofcommunicationwithinaparticularsocietyorgroup.

Humanlanguageusessoundstotransmitmeaningfulcommunication.

Languagehasseveralfunctions:

· Communicationofthoughts,desires,andneedstoothers.

· Translationofexperiencesintosymbolssothatoneisabletorememberthe

experiencesbetter.

· Helpstoincreaseunderstanding.

· Socialinteraction.

· Transmissionofculture

Acquisition-Theprocessbywhichweidentify,perceive,registerandrecord

informationinourmemory.

Holophrasticstage-Aperiodinwhichachildspeaksinoneword“sentences”usually

between12-18months.

Telegraphicspeech-Veryabbreviatedsentencesconsistingoftwowords,which

correctlyfollowthestructureoflanguage.

Motherese-Asimplifiedwayofspeaking,whichfacilitateslanguagelearning

Over-regularization-Aprocessofmakingirregularwordforms

Pragmatics-Thestudyofhowlanguageisusedinasocialcontext.

Over-extensions-Processofusingwordstocovermorethantheadultmeaning

Morpheme-Thesmallestunitofalanguagethatbyitselfhasarecognizablemeaning.

Itisawordorpartofaword.

Syntax-Consistsofrulesbywhichwordsandmorphemesarecombinedtopformlonger

unitssuchasclausesandsentences

Semantics-Isthestudyofmeaningofhowthesoundsoflanguagearerelatedtothereal

worldandourownexperiences.

Phonology-Isthestudyofthesoundsystemofalanguageandhowitdevelops.

9.2PROCESSOFLANGUAGEACQUISITION

Theprocessoflanguagedevelopmentfollowsthefollowingstages:

1.Pre-speechCommunication(birthto12months)

- Beforethedevelopmentofspeech,babiescrytocommunicatehunger,

discomfort,orpain.Parentsinterprettheircriesandrespondtothem.

Otherformsofpre-speechcommunicationincludethefollowing.Cooing

appearsfromaboutthreetofiveweeks.Thesearerepeatedvowels-like

soundssuchasooh!,ah!Vocalizations.Fromfourtosixmonths,babbling

begins.Thisinvolvesamixtureofvowelsandconsonantse.g.ma/ma,pa-

pa.

- Fromtenmonths,babiesusebothgestures(point)andchangesinpitchto

communicatecertainemotions,questions,requestsorcommands.

Itisimportanttonotethatchildrenunderstandlanguagebeforetheyareable

tospeak.

2.HolophrasticStage(10to18months)

Childrenbegintouttersinglewordstorefertospecifictangiblethingsthey

cansee.Asinglewordcouldbeusedtomeanalotofthings;forinstance:

“Door”couldbeusedtomean:

Thatisadoor

Isthatadoor?(Askingaquestion)

Openthedoor(stateademand).

Theonewordcanonlybeunderstoodincontext.Thelistenerhastoinferthe

child’sintentionsfromtheintonationandthespecificsituation.Thelanguage

issaidtoover-extende.g.achildwillcallallanimalsaredoggie.

Overextensionisasaresultoflimitedvocabulary.Theprocessprovidesan

opportunityforthechildtolearnadditionalvocabulary.

3.Telegraphicspeech(18to30months)

Childrenbegintoputtwowordstogethere.g.babychair,morechair,throw

ball–likeatelegram.Thesesentencescontainonlythecriticalcontentwords,

leavingoutthearticles.Therudimentsofgrammarstarttoappear.Two-year

oldscontinuetouseintonationtoindicatemeaning.

4.Acquiringcomplexrules(2yearstopre-adolescent)

Childrenlearnsyntax(grammaticalrulesoflanguage)bybuildingontheir

knowledgeofwhatwordsmean.Initially,therulesareoverapplied,for

examplewhentheylearnthepasttensesofverbs,theyseemtoapplythemin

allcasese.g.

make- maked

hold- holded

keep- keeped i.e.theyoverapplytherulesformakingpasttenses.This

iscalledoverregularization.Bythreeyears,childrenhaveavocabularyof

900words.Astheybegintomakesentences,theydiscovertheruleof

combiningwords(syntacticalrule).Errorsarecommonintheirspeechand

thisprovidesanopportunityforcorrection.

9.3THEORIESOFLANGUAGEACQUSITION

Therearefourtheoriesthatexplaintheprocessoflanguageacquisition.Thesearethe

learningtheories,biologicaltheories,cognitivetheoriesandtheinteractionisttheories.

1.LearningTheories.

Accordingtothistheory,childrenlearnlanguagebecauseadultsreinforcecorrectusage

oftheirlanguage.Successiveapproximationsarerewardedorreinforced.Childrenalso

learntoimitatethelanguageandaccentofmembersoftheirsocialgroup.Childrenwho

aretalkedtomorelearnmorevocabularyandthosewhoarecorrecteddobetterthan

thosewhoarenot.

2.Biological(Innate)theories

Thesequenceoflanguageacquisitionisbroadlysimilarinallsocieties.Itoccursinall

humanculturesandalllanguageshavecertainfeaturesincommon.Humanbeingshave

aninnatedevice,theLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)withoutwhichlanguage

cannotdevelop.

1.CognitiveTheory

Accordingtothistheory,childrenhavetheabilitytocategorizetheirworldevenbefore

theycancommunicatewithothersinlanguage.Theyunderstandanduseparticular

linguisticstructuresonlywhentheircognitiveabilitiesenablethemtodoso.Children

formschemestoexplaineventsintheirlivesandonlythentalkaboutthem.Asthey

developmoreintellectually,theyproduceelaboratesentencesthatareexpandedbyadults

andolderchildren.

2.SocialInteractionTheory

Thistheorydealswithsocialskillsofchildrenandtheeffectofsocialenvironment.It

emphasizesthechild’searlyexperiencesofcommunicatingandinteractingsociallywith

peopleintheirsurroundings.Adultsgivemeaningtosoundsandutterancesofinfants

throughcomments,interpretations,extendingandrepeatingwhatthechildsays.

9.4FACTORSINFLUENCINGLANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT

1.Socialenvironment.Theenvironmentneedstobestimulatingintermsoflanguage

acquisition.Thereshouldbesuitablerolemodelsandregularuseoflanguage.

2.Presenceofadultspeakersratherthanotherchildren.

3.Cognitivedevelopment

4.Maturationandotherdevelopmentalfactorssuchashearing,mothdeformitiesetc.

5.Bilinguals.

9.5Summary

Thereareourmainstagesinlanguageacquisition

Theoreticalapproachestolanguagewerediscussed.

Languageacquisitionisinfluencedbyaninteractionbetweeninnateandenvironmental

factors.

RevisionQuestions

1)Whatistheroleofparents/caregiversinlanguagedevelopment.

2)Explainthevarioustheoriesoflanguageacquisition

3)Describethestagesoflanguagedevelopment.

LESSONTEN:SOCIALDEVELOPMENT

10.0INTRODUCTION

Wearesocialbeingsthatdependonothersforourneeds.Socialdevelopmentisaprocess

throughwhichweacquiretheabilitytobehaveinaccordancewithsocialexpectations,

playapprovedsocialroles,developappropriatesocialattitudesandacquireasenseof

self-identity.Inthislessonwewilllookatvarioustheoriesofsocialdevelopment;the

processofsocialdevelopment;theroleofplayinsocialdevelopment;andfinallyfactors

influencingsocialdevelopment.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthislesson,thestudentwillbeableto:

1)Describethemaintheoriesofsocialdevelopment.

2)Explaintheprocessofsocialdevelopment.

3)Discusstherolesplayedbyvariousagentsofsocialization.

4)Discussplayanditsroleinsocialdevelopment.

5)Explainthefactorsinfluencingsocialdevelopment.

10.1.THEORIESOFSOCIALDEVELOPMENT

Therearethreetheoriesthatexplainsocialdevelopment.

1.Thepsychoanalytictheory.

Accordingtothistheory,socialdevelopmentisinfluencedbythedevelopmentofsex

typedbehaviors,whichareacquiredwhenchildrenlearntoidentifywiththesamesex

parentafterresolvingtheOedipusandElectracomplexes.

2.Thesociallearningtheory.

Childrendevelopsociallythroughobservationandimitationofothersintheimmediate

environment.Thoseobservedmaybeparents,siblings,teachersandpeers.Appropriate

imitationisreinforced.Forexample,boysarereinforcedforaggressionwhilegirlsare

reinforcedforsubmissionanddependence.Inappropriatebehaviorsarepunishedthus

reducingthechancesofbeingrepeated.

3.Cognitivetheory.

Thistheoryemphasizestheroleplayedbymentalprocessesinunderstandingonessex

andgender.Genderidentitybeginsbyrealizingthatoneisaboyorgirlbynotingthe

anatomicaldifferencesbetweenboysandgirls.Thechildthenlabelsthemselvesasmale

orfemaleandbeginstoactaccordingly.Ifthisdoesnothappen,onemayexperience

genderidentityproblemssuchastranssexuals.

10.2THEPROCESSOFSOCIALDEVELOPMENT

Frombirthtosixmonths,theneonateisasocialthatisinsensitivetootherpeople.Itis

self-centeredandthisisbecauseithaslittlecommunication.

Fromsixtotwentymonths,thechildbeginstoappreciatewhatotherpeopledoforthem

suchasfeeding,careandwarmth.

Fromtwotofiveyears,thechildisgraduallyseparatedfromthemotherandbeginsto

interactwithotherchildrenandsiblings.

Fromsixtoelevenyears,thechildspendsmoretimewithpeersinschool.Thereareboth

formalandinformalinteractions.Theassociationsarebasicallywiththesamesex.From

twelveyearsonwardsistheonsetofadolescence.Thepeergroupbecomesmore

importantandtheybegintoassociatewithmembersoftheoppositesex.

10.3AGENTSOFSOCIALIZATION

Thefollowingarethemainagentsofsocialization.

TheFamily

Parentstraintheirchildreninthefollowingareas:eating,toilettraining,sexmodesty,

dressingandtidiness,respectforadultsandthoseinauthorityandculturalinhibitions.

Childrenaretrainedthroughrewardsandpunishmentsandbyimitationofrolemodels.

Theschool

Childrenlearnhowtorelatetoothersformallyandinformally.Theschoolimparts

knowledgeandskillsandproperattitudestopupilstohelpthemfitinthesociety.The

schoolalsoreinforcesthevaluesofthesociety.Forexampleemphasizingcleanliness,co-

operation,respectetc.

Peergroups

Childrenlearnmeaningofrole,statusandleadershipfrompeers.Thepeergroupalso

influencesfashions,habitsandtrends.Fromthepeergroup,childrenacquirethe

followingbenefits:

· Itprovidesopportunitytopracticeleadershipskills,whichmayenhancesachild’s

self-esteemnecessaryforahealthypersonalitydevelopment.

· Itteachesthechildavarietyofsocialskillssuchascooperationandsharing.

· Itprovidesanemotionaloutletandsocialemotionalsupportwhenoneisexperiencing

problems.

· Itprovidesopportunityforonetoexpresshimamongequalswithoutfearofjudgment

orreprimands.

Socialorganizations

Theseincludereligiousorganizations,clubs,societiesetc.

Massmedia

Includeselectronicandprintmedia.Theirroleistoeducate,informandinfluence.The

massmediacanenhanceprosocialbehavior,languageandcognitivedevelopment.Itcan

alsointroduceantisocialbehaviorsuchasaggressionandgenderandracialstereotypes.

10.4THEROLEOFPLAYINSOCIALDEVELOPMENT

Inplaying,childrenlearntocombinefreedomwithpersonallyimposedrulesinactivities

thathavenogoaloutsideoftheactivityitself.Playinvolvesfreewheelingfantasy,while

gameshaveexternallyimposedrules,theyareusuallyarecompetitiveandhavewinners

andlosers.Youngchildrenengageinplay,olderchildrenengageingames.Play

socializesandeducatesyoungsters.

Stylesofplay

1.Non-socialplay(2-3years)

Itincludes

- Unoccupiedplay–timeisspentobservingsomeeventorobject.

- Onlookerplay–involveswatchingotherchildrenplayandnotjoininginexcept

toaskaquestionorsuggestion

- Solitaryindependentplay–involvesplayingwithoneselfwithoutinteractingwith

others.

- Parallelplay–playingbyoneselfbutbyotherchildrenwhoarealsoplaying.

2.Socialplay(4-5years)

Includes

- Associativeplay–playingwithothersinacommonactivity,sharingplay

materialsandinfluenceeachother’splayactivity,howeverthereisno

coordinationordivisionoflabororunifiedgoal.

- Co-operativeplay–moreorganizedandhasacommongoalandcommonrules.

NB:socialplayisdecliningdueto;

-Influenceofthetelevision

-Solitaryandeducationaltoys

-Growinguseofcomputersbythechildren.

-Familieswithfewersiblings.

-Lackofspaceetc

Typesofplay

Therearefourtypesofplays;

1.Functionalplay

Mostcommoninthefirstandthirdyearsandmostcommoninboysthangirls.It

involvessimplerepetitivemuscularactivities(withorwithoutobjects)Forexample

pullingattoys.

2.Constructiveplay

Beginsattheageof2years.Mostcommonbetweentheageof4and6years.It

involvesmanipulationofobjecttobuildorcreatesomething.Forexampleusing

blocks,clayetc.Girlsengageinmoreconstructiveplaythanboys.Constructiveplay

aidsinproblemsolvingbyincreasingflexibilityandconsolidatinglearning,

encouragingelaborationandenhancingcreativity.

3.Dramaticplay(pretendorfantasy)involveseitherusingimaginarysituationsor

characters.Itmaybesimpleorelaborate.Forexampleplayingcareersusing

puppetsorcostumes.Dramaticplayallowslearningthroughrole-play,permits

childrentorehearseproblemsinanofailuresituation,andletschildrenfeelmore

powerfulandcompetentbytakingontherolesofparents,workersandevensuper

heroes.Pre-schoolchildrencanusefantasyplaytohandlefeelingsof

helplessness,frustrationandanger.

4.Games.Forolderchildren.Includesactivitiesinvolvingexternallyimposedrules,

structuresandagoal.Forexampleplayinghopscotch,marblesetc.Replace

dramaticplayandiscommoninages6-12years.Givespracticeinfollowing

complexrules,cooperatinginlargeandsmallgroups,dealingwithwinningor

losing.

ImportanceofPlay

1.Thephysicalactivityofplayhelpsyoungchildrentodevelopandimprovetheir

mentalskills.

2.Imaginaryandfantasyplayisasteptowardsthedevelopmentofabstractthinking.

3.Playhelpschildrentopersevereandbuildattentionskills.

4.Playisimportantinsocial-emotionaldevelopment.

· Childrenuseplaytounderstand,express,shareandcontrolemotional

experiences.

· Allowchildrentogetridofaggressionandtolearntocontrolaggressiveurges.

· Throughplaychildrenformtheirfirstfriendshipsandbuildsocialskills.

· Provideafairlysafeenvironmentinwhichchildrencancomparetheirown

behaviorsandskillswiththoseofotherchildren.

5.Helpsinmuscularcoordinationandmotorskillarerefined.

6.Increasesself-confidence.

7.Developscognitive,socialandemotionalskillsforexampleproblemsolving,

languagecompetenceandinteraction.

8.Showschild’sinnerneedsanddesires.

9.Helpschildrentobetterunderstandsthemselves,othersandevents.

10.Learnshowtoformulate,negotiate,argueandfollowrules.

11.Improvescreativityimagination,andtolerance.

12.Helpschildrentoacquirenewinformationandunderstanding.

13.Learnshowtolistentoother’sviews.

14.Learnstocommunicateideasandacquiremorevocabularies.

15.Resolveconflict-endurance,sympathy,andself-control,giveandreceive.

16.Lowimpulsivity,lowaggression,sharing,cooperation,independence,social

maturity.

10.5FACTORSINFLUENCINGSOCIALDEVELOPMENT

1.Presenceofahandicap

2.Heredity

3.Culture

4.Appropriaterolemodelsandsocializingagents.

5.Disciplinarypracticesathomeandschool

6.Birthorder

6.Rateofmaturation

10.6Summary

Socializationequipschildrenwithasenseofidentity

Socialdevelopmentoccursinstages.

Varioustheoriesofsocialdevelopmentexist.

Manyagentsinfluencesocialization.

Playisanimportantaspectinsocialdevelopment.

ReviewQuestions

1.Discussthethreetheoriesofsocialdevelopment.

2.Describethestagesofsocialdevelopment

3.Discusstheroleplayedbythevariousagentsofsocialization.

4.Explainhowplaycontributestootheraspectsofdevelopment.

LESSONELEVEN:EMOTIONALDEVELOPMENT

11.0INTRODUCTION

Emotionsarewhatmakeusseemmosthuman.Werage;laugh,cry,fearandwelove.

Havingfeelingsisanimportantpartofbeinghuman.Dobabieshavefeelings?Thereis

reliableevidencethatyounginfantsareemotionalcreatures.Inthislesson,wewill

discussdevelopmentofemotions;expressionofemotions;recognitionandinterpretation

ofemotions;emotionalattachment;andfinallyfactorsinfluencingexpressionof

emotions.

OBJECTIVES

Bytheendofthelesson,thelearnershouldbeableto:

1.Explainwhatemotionsare.

2.Discussthedevelopmentofemotions.

3.Explainthefactorsthatinfluencetheexpressionofemotions.

4.Describehowchildrenrecognizeandinterpretemotionsinotherpeople.

5.Distinguishbetweenthedifferenttypesofattachmentsandtheireffectsonlater

development.

6.Discussfactorspromotingandinhibitingattachment.

11.1DEVELOPMENTOFEMOTIONS

Variousemotionsappearatdifferenttimesoverthefirsttwoyearsoflife.

Atbirth,babiesshowinterest,distress,disgustandcontentment

Fromtwoandhalftosevenmonths,emotionssuchasanger,sadness,joy,surpriseand

fearemerge.Theseemotionsuptosevenmonthsarecalledprimary(orbasicemotions).

Theyarepresentatbirthoremergeearlyinthefirstyear.Theyarebelievedtobe

biologicallyprogrammed,fortheyemergeinallnormalinfantsatroughlythesameages

andaredisplayedandinterpretedsimilarlyinallcultures(Camrasetal1992;Izard1982;

1993).

Fromtwoyears,infantsbegintodisplayemotionssuchasshame,embarrassmentguilty;

envy;andpride.Theseemotionsarecalledsecondary(orcomplex)emotions.Theyare

sometimescalledself-consciousemotions,becauseeachinvolvessomedamagetoor

embarrassmentofoursenseofself.Theydependinpartoncognitivedevelopment(self-

recognition)andtheabilitytoevaluateonesperformanceasgoodorbad.

However,childrenarelikelytodisplayself-evaluativeemotionswhensomeoneelseis

presenttoobservetheirbehavior.Itisusuallyatelementaryschoolperiodthatchildren

feelsociallypridefulorshamefulabouttheirconductintheabsenceofexternal

surveillance.

11.2EXPRESSIONOFEMOTIONS

Eachsocietyhasasetofemotionaldisplayrulesthatspecifythecircumstancesunder

whichvariousemotionsshouldorshouldnotbeexpressed.Forexample,American

babieslearnthatintenseemotionisokayaslongasitispositive,whereasGusiibabies

learntorestrainbothpositiveandnegativeemotions(Dixonetal.1981;LevinandLevin

1988).

Tocomplywithaculture’semotionaldisplayrules,thechildneedstoacquirethe

followingskills:

a)Emotionalself-regulation.Thisincludesstrategiesforregulatingandcontrolling

emotions,oradjustingemotionalarousaltoacomfortablelevelofintensity.

b)Acquiringemotionaldisplayrules.Thisinvolvessuppressingtheunacceptable

emotiononeisexperiencingandreplacingthem(outwardly)withwhatever

feelingthatthedisplayrulecallsforinthatsituation.Forexample,actinghappy

afterreceivingadisappointinggift.Thisisinvolvesemotionaldeceit.

Asearlyastwoyears,childrenhavethesameemotionsasolderchildrenandadults.

However,whatdiffersistheirexpressionoftheseemotions.Atinfancy,innerfeelings

andoutwardexpressionsareclearlymatched.Ingeneral,twoyearoldsexpresstheir

emotionsinanimmediate,impulsiveanddirectmanner.Theycannotwaittohavetheir

needssatisfied.Theycry,throwtempertantrums,hitoutuntiltheyhavetheirneeds

satisfied.Pre-schoolchildrenbegintomasktheirfeelings,butinmostcases,theywear

theirfeelingsontheirfaceandexpressthemfreely.

Duringtheelementaryschoolyears,childrenbecomemoreawareofsociallysanctioned

displayrules,thatis,whatemotionstoexpressandwhichonestohideinparticular

situations.Theyaremoreverbalandthoughtfulintheirexpressionofemotions.They

takelongertobuildandexpresstheiremotions.Inaddition,theirexpressionismore

diversifiedandlessdirect.Forexample,theylearntodisplacetheirangerForexample

kickachairorayoungerchild.

FactorsinfluencingexpressionofEmotions

1.Interactionwithparents,otherrelativesandpeers

2.Informalteaching.Forexamplewhenboyscry,theyarescoldedandtoldthatmen

don’tcrybutgirlsaretoleratedevenencouragedtocry.

3.Rewardandpunishment

4.Modeling

5.Directinstruction

6.Culture

11.3RECOGNIZINGANDINTERPRETINGEMOTIONS

Atthreemonths,babiescandiscriminatetheirmother’shappy,sadorangryexpressions

whenthefacialconfigurationsareaccompaniedbyahappy,sadorangrytoneofvoice,

buttheybecomegleefulinresponsetoahappyexpressionanddistressedbytheir

mothersangerorsadness.

Eighttotenmonths,infants’abilitytointerpretemotionalexpressionsbecomesmore

obvious.Theybegintomonitortheirparent’semotionalreactionstouncertainsituations

andthenusethisinformationtoregulatetheirownbehavior.Thisabilityiscalledsocial

referencingandincreaseswithageandissoonextendedtostrangersaswell

(Feinman,1992).

Bytwelvemonths,infantswillapproachandplaywithunfamiliartoysifanearby

strangerissmiling,butwillavoidtheseobjectsifthestrangerdisplaysafearful

expression.

Bytwoyears,childrenwilllooktotheircompanionsafterappraisinganewobjector

situation.Thisshowstheyareusingothers’emotionalreactionstoassesstheaccuracyof

theirownjudgments.

Twotothreeyears,childrenbecomebetteratinterpretingothers’emotions.Thisis

enhancedbytheabilitytotalkaboutemotionsinfamilyconversations.

Fourtofiveyears,childrencanexplainwhyplaymatesarehappy,sadorangry,butthey

focusmoreonexternaleventsascausesthanoninternalneeds,desiresmoodsormotives.

Sixtonineyears,childrenachieveimportantbreakthroughsinemotionalunderstanding.

Forinstance:

−Theyrelymoreoninternalandexternalinformationtointerpretemotions

−Theyrecognizethatmanysituationselicitdifferentemotionalreactionsfromdifferent

individuals

−Apersoncanexperiencemorethanoneemotion

−Theydisplaysomeabilitytointegratecontrastingfacialbehavioralandsituational

cuestoinferwhattheemotionsmightbe.Theseabilitiesarehelpedbydecentration.

11.4EMOTIONALATTACHMENT

Attachmentreferstotheformationofanenduringsocial-emotionalrelationship

betweenaninfantandanotherperson.Bowlby(1969)usedthetermtodescribe

thestrongaffectionaltiesthatbindapersontoanintimatecompanion.Thefirst

attachmentisalwaysbetweentheinfantandthemother/caregiver.Thereare3

qualitiesofattachment:

1.Secureattachment—Infantexploreswhilealonewiththemotherandis

visiblyupsetbyseparation.Whenthemotherreturns,infantishappyand

welcomesphysicalcontactwithher.Thechildisoutgoingwithstrangerswhen

motherispresent.

2.Insecureattachment(anxiousandresistant)—Childappearsanxiousandare

unlikelytoexplorewhilemotherispresent.Theybecomeverydistressedwhen

themotherdeparts.Whenmotherreturnstheyareambivalent,thatistheyare

unlikelytoinitiatecontact.

3.Insecureattachment(anxiousandavoidant)—Uninterestedin

exploringwhenalonewiththeirmothers.Theyshowlittledistresswhen

separatedfromthemotherandwillavoidcontactwithherwhenshereturns.They

arenotparticularlywaryofstrangers.

StagesofAttachment(SchafferandEmerson,1964)

1.Theasocialstage(0—6weeks)

Thebabyis“asocial”inthatmanykindsofsocialandunsocialstimuliproduce

favorablereaction,andfewproduceanyprotest.

2.Thestageofindiscriminateattachments(6weeks-7months).

Theyenjoyhumancontactbuttheyaresomewhatindiscriminate.

Willprotestifanyadultputsthemdownorleavesthemalone.

Theyenjoyattentionfromanyone.

3.Thestageofspecificattachment(7months)

Theybegintoprotestifseparatedfromoneparticularindividual,usuallythe

mother.Theybegintofearstrangers.Thisshowstheyhaveformedtheirfirst

genuineattachments.

4.Thestageofmultipleattachments

Theybecomeattachedtootherpeople-father,siblings,grandparentsoraregular

babysitter.

Factorspromotingattachment

a)Parentsbegintopreparelongbeforethebabyisborn,Forexample

planningandexcitedaboutthedevelopmentofthebaby.

b)Feedingandoverallresponsivenessandamountofstimulation.

c)Warmthandcontactareimportant.

d)Theappearanceofthebaby-largeforehead,chubbycheeksandsoft

roundedfeatures.Theyappearcuteandlovable.

e)Levelofintellectualdevelopment,particularlytheabilitytodiscriminate

familiarpersonsfromstrangers.

f)Inbornprogrammedresponsesthatenablethemtopromoteinteractions

fromwhichattachmentsarelikelytodevelop.e.g.rooting;grasping;