Skill and Expertise
Skill Acquisition
Skill Acquisition
Signature Phenomena
Problem Solving and Skill Acquisition
Overview of Various Classes of Models
Episodic Memory Based
Rule Based
Schema Based
Signature Phenomena
Power Law of Practice
Automaticity
Details of Skill Acquisition Process
Deliberate Practice
10 Years to World Class Expertise
Transfer of Training
Common Elements Description of Transfer
Use Specificity of Knowledge
Power Law
On Log-Log Scale
Stages of Skill Acquisition (Fitts, 1954, VanLehn, 1996)
Cognitive Stage (Early Phase)
Understand the domain knowledge without yet
trying to apply it.
Phase is dominated by reading and discussion.
Associative Stage (Intermediate Phase)
Attempted Use of Declarative Knowledge
Problem Solving Guided By Examples
Elimination of Errors and Misunderstandings
Ends With Initial Mastery of Skill
Autonomous Stage (Late Phase)
Continue to improve in speed
and accuracy as they practice,
End point: Automaticity
Problem Solving and Skill Acquisition
Knowledge and Skills Required for Problem Understanding
Episodic Memory
Plans or Schema
Search Control Knowledge!!!
Situation-Action Knowledge
Episodic Memory
Rules
Schema
Plans or Schema
Overview of Various Classes of Models
Models That Just Use Episodic Memory
Logan, Ross
Central role of episodic memory in skill acquisition
Models at Assume Special Representation For Procedural Knowledge (Rules)
Anderson, Newell
Need to store knowledge in form that can be
accessed very accurately and rapidly
If-Then Rules
Schema-Based Models
Norman, Reason
Highly integrated representations of complex skills
Like Schema or Scripts
Lifting the Limits (Erickson)
Acquisition of Cognitive Skills
Reading
Writing
Mathematics
Programming
Design
Limits in Human Information Processing
Attention
Memory
Problem Solving
Changes in Performance with Instruction and Practice
Automaticity
Skilled Memory
Cognitive Skills
Lifting the Limits
Development of Expertise
Acquisition of Cognitive Skills
Relationships to the Acquisition of Athletic Skills
Two Kinds of Knowledge
Declarative
Procedural
Rules and Production Systems
Relationships between problem solving and skill acquisition
Two Kinds of Representations
Declarative Knowledge
Images, Linear Orders, Propositions, Schemas
Knowledge of What
Facts, recipes, etc......
Procedural Knowledge
Productions
Knowledge of How
Riding a bicycle
Productions
IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car
and the car is in first gear
and the car is going more than 10 miles per hour
THEN shift the car into second gear
Automaticity
Description of
IF (Goal and a specific situation)
THEN (do actions)
IF condition THEN action
Condition- Action Pair
Recognize-Act Cycle
Test Working Memory
Fire Rule Whose Condition is Satisfied
Sequences of Rules
IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car
and the car in neutral
and the car is standing still
and the road is clear
THEN shift the car into first gear
and accelerate
IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car
and the car is in first gear
and the car is going more than 10 miles per hour
THEN shift the car into second gear
and accelerate
IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car
and the car is in first second
and the car is going more than 25 miles per hour
THEN shift the car into third gear
and accelerate
LEARNING
IF have rule that fires, THEN do action
OTHERWISE problem solving
Successful Problem Solving Episodes are Saved in the Form of Rules
CONDITION
Goal of Problem Solving Episode
and Current Situation
ACTION
Action that Successfully Solved Problem
The Declarative-Procedural Distinction
Declarative Knowledge:
Flexible use of knowledge
Not committed to a particular use
Easily acquired and forgotten
Procedural Knowledge:
Efficient use of knowledge
Optimized for specific use
Acquired by doing, role of practice
Production rules tend to carve up a task at its natural joints
One rule for each natural unit
Rules are the units in which the skill is acquired
Goal Structuring
Production rule conditions not only make reference to certain external situations but also specify certain goal conditions.
Experimental Evidence for Two Long-Term Memories
1) Reportability: declarative knowledge
2) Associative Priming: declarative knowledge
3) Retrieval Asymmetry: procedural knowledge
4) Acquisition:
Declarative knowledge comes from direct encoding of the environment
Procedural knowledge is compiled from declarative knowledge through practice.
5) The retention functions for the two types of memories are independent.
6) There have been a number of recent demonstrations of dissociations of declarative and procedural memory in amnesiacs and other populations.
Implicit memory
Skill acquisition in HM
Factors Effecting Practice
Spacing!
Part vs Whole Learning
Independence
Necessary Subskills
Knowledge of Results
More is not necessarily better
Human tutors vs the class room
Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction
TESTS OF ASSUMPTION THAT PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
IS
REPRESENTED AS RULES
Speed Up From First to Second Correct Action
Look at A Given Step In A Problem
Measure Time to Complete Step
Assume Store Rule After First Successful Attempt
Second Attempt is Much Faster
Time to Learn A New Procedure Function of Number of Rules
Transfer a Function of Number of Shared Rules
METHOD
Polson, Muncher, and Engelbeck (1986)
TASKS
- Word Processor Utility Tasks
* change default and document format parameters
* check spelling
* duplicate diskette
- Perform Task by:
* make series of menu selections
* fill in parameter on menu for task
* exit menu to perform task
DESIGN
* 3 pairs of similar task
* vary training orders of pairs
PROCEDURE
- Learn Each Task to a Strict Criterion
- Very Constrained Training Procedure
- Anticipation Method
MODEL FITS
INDIVIDUAL DATA POINTS (n = 1079)
TRAINING Time =
Learning Time +{20 sec per New Rule}
Execution Time +{3.1 sec per Rule}
Individual Differences in Learning and Performance
Accounts for 85.2% Variance In Training Times
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