1
Appendix 2. Underlying drivers (Table 1), threats (Table 2), threat mechanisms (Table 3) and their impacts on wetland ecosystems and processes (Table 4). Sources: IUCN (2006), the EPBC Act (ALII 2006), the Nature Conservation Act and Fisheries Acts (Queensland Government 2006), the WildNet database of the Qld EPA (Martin and Sinclair 1999), the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity (CABD; DEST 1996), MedWet (Hecker and others 1996), the NRHP Environmental Flows Initiative Technical Report No. 1 (NRHP; Davis and others 2001) and Other (other literature: QDPI 1995; McComb and Lake 1988; Arthington 1991; Best and others 1993; Poff and others 1997; Preen 1998; Allanson and others 2000; Dudgeon 2000; Haynes and Michalek-Wagner 2000; Scheren and others 2000; Thorp and Lynch 2000; Finlayson and Eliot 2001; Li 2001; Schindler 2001; Brinson and Malvarez 2002; Hewitt and others 2002; Kennish 2002; Kingsford and Norman 2002; Tockner and Stanford 2002; Crawford and Cooper 2003; Finkl and Charlier 2003; Nunn 2003; Harty 2004; Houlahan and Findlay 2004; Ling 2004; Deil 2005; Douglas and others 2005; Marty 2005; Robson and Clay 2005; Houlahan and others 2006; Ojeda-Martínez and others 2009).
TABLE 1. UNDERLYING DRIVERS OF WETLAND THREATS
D1 Socio-economic
D1.1 Economic development
D1.2 Human population increase
D1.3 Human population mobility
D2 Government and management
D2.1 Bureaucratic obstacles
D2.2 Poor resourcing
D2.3 Poor legislative enforcement
D2.4 Limited international pressure
D2.5 Lack of action or too much focus on policy and study
D3 Education
D3.1 Lack of information
D3.2 Lack of public awareness
D3.3 Lack of political awareness
D3.4 Lack of commitment to wetland values
1
TABLE 2. THREATS
PRIMARY INDUSTRIES
T1 Agriculture
T1.1 Cropping regime
T1.1.1 Agro-industry production
T1.1.2 Small-holder cropping
T1.1.3 Shifting agriculture
T1.1.4 Other crop regime
T1.2 Change in crop regime
T1.3 Cropping type/s
T1.3.1 Commercial sugar cane farming
T1.3.2 Commercial cotton farming
T1.3.3 Commercial wheat farming
T1.3.4 Other crop type
T1.4 Change in crop type
T1.5 Irrigation (other than changes in hydrographic character)
T1.5.1 Irrigation channels/ ditches
T1.5.2 Irrigation tail-water
T2 Livestock grazing and production
T2.1 Livestock regime
T2.1.1 Agro-industry production
T2.1.2 Small-holder livestock grazing or production
T2.1.3 Nomadic livestock grazing or production
T2.1.4 Other livestock regime
T2.2 Livestock type
T2.2.1 Cattle grazing or production
T2.2.2 Sheep grazing or production
T2.2.3 Horse grazing or production
T2.2.4 Pig grazing or production
T2.2.5 Other grazing or production
T2.3 Grazing intensity
T2.3.1 Over-grazing
T2.3.2 Year-round grazing
T2.3.3 Seasonal grazing
T2.3.4 Intermittent grazing
T2.3.5 Drought pasturing only
T2.3.6 Locally intense grazing effects
T2.3.6.i Intense grazing effects around watering points
T2.3.6.ii Intense grazing effects around feeding points
T2.3.6.iii Intense grazing effects around sheds
T2.3.6.iv Intense grazing effects along fence-lines
T2.3.7 Other grazing intensity
T2.4 Change in grazing regime, intensity or type
T2.4.1 Cessation of grazing
T2.4.2 Change in grazing intensity
T2.4.3 Change in grazing seasonality
T3 Apiculture
T3.1 Honeybee hives in native forests or woodlands
T4 Forestry
T4.1 Timber plantation scale
T4.1.1 Small-scale plantation
T4.1.2 Large-scale plantation
T4.2 Timber plantation regime
T4.2.1 Hardwood species plantation
T4.2.2 Softwood species plantation
T4.2.3 Non-timber species plantation
T4.2.4 Mixed regime plantation
T4.3 Plantation species type
T4.3.1 Native species
T4.3.2 Exotic species
T4.3.3 Mixed native – exotic species
T5 Other land management
T5.1 Creation of fire break
T5.2 Hazard reduction burn
T5.3 Vegetation clearance using anthropogenic fire
T5.3.1 Increased incidence of vegetation clearance with fire
T5.3.2 Decreased incidence of vegetation clearance with fire
T5.4 Creation of artificial watering points
T6 Aquaculture
T6.1 Freshwater aquaculture
T6.2 Marine aquaculture
EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES, MINING, HUNTING & HARVESTING
T7 Terrestrial - Mining or extraction (not exploration - see other ad hoc human activities)
T7.1 Sand/ gravel/ clay extraction or mining
T7.2 Beach materials (other than sand) extraction or mining
T7.3 Oil/ gas extraction or mining
T7.4 Salt - natural deposit - extraction or mining
T7.5 Salt - artificial evaporation basin - extraction or mining
T7.6 Other
T8 Terrestrial - Timber harvesting/ deforestation
T8.1 Clear-cutting or clear-falling of timber
T8.2 Selective logging
T8.3 Small-scale subsistence logging
T9 Terrestrial - Harvesting fauna and flora
T9.1 Harvesting terrestrial fauna and flora: food
T9.2 Harvesting terrestrial fauna and flora: medicine
T9.3 Harvesting terrestrial fauna and flora: fuel
T9.4 Harvesting terrestrial fauna and flora: materials
T9.5 Use of terrestrial fauna and flora: cultural/scientific/leisure activities
T9.6 Other
T10 Aquatic - Water extraction
T10.1 Groundwater or aquifer water extraction
T10.2 Surface water extraction
T11 Aquatic - Commercial fisheries
T11.1 Large scale/industrial fishery
T11.1.1 Deep sea trawling
T11.1.2 Shallow trawling
T11.1.3 Drift netting
T11.1.4 Longline fishing
T11.2 Sport-fishing
T11.2.1 Shore-based freshwater
T11.2.2 Shore-based saltwater
T11.2.3 Near shore freshwater
T11.2.4 Near shore saltwater
T11.2.5 Offshore
T11.3 Commercial cetacean harvesting
T11.4 Aquarium or pet trade - commercial
T11.5 Commercial coral removal
T11.6 Commercial kelp harvesting
T12 Aquatic – non-commercial harvesting
T12.1 Scientific research cetacean harvesting
T12.2 Non-commercial coral removal
T12.3 Non-commercial kelp harvesting
T13 Aquatic -Harvesting fauna and flora
T13.1 Harvesting aquatic fauna and flora: food
T13.2 Harvesting aquatic fauna and flora: medicine
T13.3 Harvesting aquatic fauna and flora: fuel
T13.4 Harvesting aquatic fauna and flora: materials
T13.5 Use of aquatic organisms: cultural/scientific/leisure activities
T14 Other
URBANISATION, INDUSTRIALISATION AND RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE
T15 Industry
T16 Human settlement or urbanization
T16.1 Residential areas
T16.2 Rural small-holdings
T16.3 Effluent treatment
T16.3.1 Primary effluent treatment
T16.3.2 Secondary effluent treatment
T16.3.3 Tertiary effluent treatment
T16.4 Waste disposal development
T16.5 Floodplain development
T16.6 Development on coastal wetlands or mangroves
T16.7 Development on reef areas
T16.8 Development of island areas
T16.9 Other
T17 Recreation and tourism
T17.1 Ecotourism
T17.2 Resort-based activities
T17.3 Sailing
T17.4 Snow-skiing
T17.5 4WD
T17.6 Bushwalking
T18 Transportation – Land
T18.1 Roads, motorways, etc
T18.2 4WD tracks
T18.3 Paths, cycle-ways, walking trails
T18.4 Railway lines or stations
T18.5 Bridge, viaduct, tunnel, ford
T19 Transportation – air
T19.1 Airport, heliport
T20 Transportation – water
T20.1 Commercial port
T20.2 Other port
T20.3 Marina or boat-yard
T20.4 Offshore pontoon or anchorage
T21 Energy and communications
T21.1 Telecommunications infrastructure
T21.2 Power-lines
T21.2.1 Above ground power-lines
T21.2.2 Below ground power-lines
OTHER AD HOC HUMAN ACTIVITIES
T22 Persecution
T22.1 Pest control
T22.1.1 Pest control of exotic species
T22.1.2 Pest control of native species
T22.2 Vandalism
T22.3 Other
T23 Research activities
T24 War/civil unrest
T25 Geological survey
T25.1 Seismic surveys
T25.2 Oil and gas exploration
T25.3 Other
T26 Recreation activities
T26.1 Sailing
T26.2 Snow-skiing
T26.3 4WD tours
T26.4 Bushwalking
T26.5 Horse-riding
T26.6 Mountain-biking
T26.7 Camping
T27 Other
HUMAN-INDUCED CHANGES IN HYDROGRAPHICS
T28 Direct modification of wetland
T28.1 Excavation of springs, ponds or lakes to increase water storage
T28.2 Diversion of water into wetland for increased water supply
T28.3 Land reclamation
T28.4 Installation of drains
T28.5 Dredging
T29 Dams and other water barriers
T29.1 Hydro-electric dams
T29.2 Farm dams
T29.3 Stock watering points
T29.4 Ponded pastures
T29.5 Civil water supply
T29.6 Local domestic dams
T29.7 Mining tailings dams
T29.8 Irrigation tailings
T29.9 Tidal barriers or sea-walls
T29.10 Weirs or barrages
T29.11 Levée banks
T30 Water transfer infrastructure
T30.1 Canals
T30.2 Water pipelines
T30.3 Flood mitigation channels
T30.4 Bore
T31 Water transfer via natural waterways
T32 De-snagging
T33 Other
BIOLOGICAL INTRODUCTIONS
T34 Introduction of exotic species
T34.1 Exotic species listed under the EPBC Act
T34.1.1 Red fire ant (Solenopsis invicta)
T34.1.2 Cane toads (Bufo marinus)
T34.1.3 Feral pigs (Sus scrofa)
T34.1.4 Feral European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
T34.1.5 Feral goats (Capra aegagrus hircus)
T34.1.6 Feral cats (Felis silvestris catus)
T34.1.7 European Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
T34.2 Weeds of national significance (found in Queensland) (non-marine)
T34.2.1 Alligator Weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides)
T34.2.2 Athel Pine (Tamarix aphylla)
T34.2.3 Bitou Bush/Boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera)
T34.2.4 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.)
T34.2.5 Cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana)
T34.2.6 Gorse (Ulex europaeus)
T34.2.7 Hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis)
T34.2.8 Lantana (Lantana camara)
T34.2.9 Mesquite (Prosopis spp.)
T34.2.10 Parkinsonia (Parkinsonia aculeata)
T34.2.11 Parthenium Weed (Parthenium hysterophorus)
T34.2.12 Pond Apple (Annona glabra)
T34.2.13 Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica ssp. indica)
T34.2.14 Rubber Vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora)
T34.2.15 Salvinia (Salvinia molesta)
T34.2.16 Willows
T34.3 Noxious fish of Queensland (Schedule 5a of Queensland Fisheries Act)
T34.3.1 Bluegill (Lepomis spp.)
T34.3.2 Chinese Weatherfish /Weatherloach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus)
T34.3.3 Electric Eel (Electrophorus electricus)
T34.3.4 Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
T34.3.5 Climbing Perch (Anabas testudineus)
T34.3.6 Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)
T34.3.7 Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides)
T34.3.8 Gambusia/ Mosquitofish (Gambusia spp.)
T34.3.9 Nile Perch (Lates niloticus)
T34.3.10 Parasitic or Pencil Catfishes/ Candiru (Family Trichomycteridae)
T34.3.11 Pike Cichlids (Crenicichla spp.)
T34.3.12 Piranhas/ Pacus (Subfamily Serrasalminae - all species except Metynnis spp. and Myleus rubripinnis)
T34.3.13 Snakeheads (Channa spp.)
T34.3.14 Tiger Catfish (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum)
T34.3.15 Tigerfishes (African) (Hydrocynus spp.)
T34.3.16 Tigerfishes (South American) (Trahiras, Erythrinus, Hoplerythrinus and Hoplias spp.)
T34.3.17 Tilapia (Tilapia, Oreochromis and Sarotherodon spp.)
T34.3.18 Walking Catfish/ Air-breathing Catfish (Family Clariidae)
T34.4 Introduced marine pests (national)
T34.4.1 Toxic dinoflagellate (Alexandrium catenella)
T34.4.2 Toxic dinoflagellate (Alexandrium minutum)
T34.4.3 Toxic dinoflagellate (Alexandrium tamarense)
T34.4.4 Northern Pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis)
T34.4.5 Aquarium Caulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia)
T34.4.6 Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas)
T34.4.7 Quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis)
T34.4.8 Toxic dinoflagellate (Gymnodinium catenatum )
T34.4.9 Sea walnut (Mnemiopsis leidyi)
T34.4.10 Black striped mussel (Mytilopsis sallei)
T34.4.11 Asian clam (Potamocorbula amurensis)
T34.4.12 European fan worm (Sabella spallanzanii)
T34.4.13 Wakame (Japanese) (Undaria pinnatifida)
T34.4.14 European clam (Varicorbula gibba)
T34.5 Native species translocation
T34.6 Garden escapes of exotic plants
T34.7 Other
T35 Introduction of genetically modified species
T36 Other
NATURAL PROCESS PRESSURES (ABIOTIC)
T37 Natural disasters - geomorphological events
T37.1 Earthquake
T37.2 Avalanches/ landslides
T37.3 Volcanic activity
T37.3.1 Lava flows
T37.3.2 Eruption of volcanic ash, dust, rocks
T37.3.3 Emission of toxic gases
T37.4 Change in sediment movement
T37.4.1 Erosion
T37.4.2 Siltation
T37.4.3 Subsidence of sediments
T38 Natural disasters - climatic events
T38.1 Drought
T38.2 Cyclones/ storms
T38.2.1 Increased cyclone or storm incidence
T38.2.2 Decreased cyclone or storm incidence
T38.3 Flooding/ inundation
T38.4 Temperature extremes
T38.4.1 High temperatures
T38.4.2 Low temperatures
T39 Natural disasters - Wildfire
T40 Natural hydrographic processes
T40.1 Submersion
T40.2 Inundation change
T41 Natural physical and chemical processes
T41.1 Eutrophication
T41.2 Acidification
T41.3 Nutrient change
T41.4 Other chemical change
T42 Local weather change
T42.1 Rainfall change (quantity, intensity, seasonality, etc)
T42.1.1 Increase in rainfall quantity, intensity or seasonality
T42.1.2 Decrease in rainfall quantity, intensity or seasonality
T42.2 Temperature change
T42.2.1 Increase in mean annual temperature
T42.2.2 Decrease in mean annual temperature
T42.2.3 Increase in number of extreme temperature events
T42.2.4 Decrease in number of extreme temperature events
T42.3 Wind intensity or directionality
T42.3.1 Increase in wind intensity
T42.3.2 Decrease in wind intensity
T42.3.3 Altered wind directionality
T43 Regional climate change
T43.1 El Niño event
T43.1.1 Increased frequency of El Niño events
T43.2 La Niña event
T43.3 Enhanced greenhouse gas induced warming
TABLE 3. THREAT MECHANISMS
DIRECT IMPACTS ON INDIVIDUAL NATIVE ORGANISMS
M1 Non-human species directly injurying or killing native species
M1.1 Lethal toxic ingestion of exotic species
M1.2 Death from poisoning, stinging or biting by exotic species
M1.3 Lethal toxic ingestion of native species
M1.4 Death from poisoning, stinging or biting by native species
M1.5 Other attacks causing death
M1.6 Attacks causing injury
M2 Human-caused deliberate injury or death of species
M2.1 Human-caused mortality of other species
M2.2 Human-caused injury of other species
M3 Accidental mortality from human activity or infrastructure
M3.1 Fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms
M3.1.1 Hooking (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.2 Longline hooking (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.3 Netting/ mesh netting (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.4 Entanglement in netting (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.5 Entanglement in debris (especially marine) (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.6 Ingestion of debris (especially marine)
M3.1.7 Burial or smothering by debris or waste products (especially benthic marine)
M3.1.8 Dynamite (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.9 Electro-fishing (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.10 Poisoning (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.1.11 Collision with marine vehicle or propellor
M3.1.12 Other (fisheries-related accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.2 Terrestrial accidental mortality of organisms
M3.2.1 Trapping/ snaring/ netting (accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.2.2 Shooting (accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.2.3 Poisoning (accidental mortality of organisms)
M3.2.4 Collision with pylon or building
M3.2.5 Vehicle collision
M3.2.6 Other (accidental mortality of organisms)
M4 Physical disturbance
M4.1 Trampling
M4.2 Ring-barking of plant species when grazing
M4.3 Damage or destruction of active nest sites
M4.4 Damage or destruction of dormant nest sites
M4.5 Damage or destruction of habitat
M4.6 Damage or destruction of food resource
M4.7 Other
CHANGES TO THE POPULATION DYNAMICS OF NATIVE SPECIES
M5 Changes in reproduction
M5.1 Reduced reproduction
M5.2 Inbreeding
M5.3 Skewed sex ratios
M5.4 Disruption of breeding
M5.5 Increased irregularity of breeding
M6 Changes in population demographics or structure
M6.1 Changes in population demography
M6.1.1 High loss of eggs or propagules
M6.1.2 High mortality of juveniles
M6.1.3 High mortality of adults
M6.1.4 High mortality of older adult individuals
M6.1.5 High mortality of females
M6.1.6 High mortality of males
M6.1.7 High mortality of dominant individuals
M6.1.8 Decreased growth rates
M6.1.9 Decreased densities
M6.2 Changes in population structure
M6.2.1 Reduced recruitment or regeneration
M6.2.2 Increased recruitment or regeneration
M7 Changes in genetic or phenotypic makeup of species
M7.1 Decreased heterozygosity
M7.2 Increased mutations
M7.3 Decreased morphological variability
M8 Changes in movement of species
M8.1 Reduced migration
M8.2 Increased migration
M8.3 Reduced foraging range
M8.4 Increased foraging range
M8.5 Reduced dispersal
M8.6 Increased dispersal
CHANGES IN HOW DIFFERENT SPECIES INTERACT
M9 Altered native species dynamics (directly impacting habitat)
M10 Altered native species dynamics (directly impacting other biota)
M10.1 Reduced competitive ability
M10.1.1 Against native species
M10.1.2 Against exotic species
M10.2 Disruption of predatory relationships
M10.2.1 Increased risk of predation
M10.2.2 Decreased risk of predation
M10.2.3 Increased predation level