Physical Activity, Perceived Competence and Enjoyment

During Secondary School Physical Education

Stuart Fairclough[1]

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, 11-13 September 2003

This paper was published in The European Journal of Physical Education, Volume 8, Edition 1, pp.5-18, 2003

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to assess the levels of physical activity, perceived competence and enjoyment of English secondary school children. Seventy three students (mean age 13.1 years) from 5 schools took part. Physical activity was assessed during Physical Education (PE) lessons using heart rate telemetry. Perceived competence and enjoyment were measured by a post lesson questionnaire. Perceived competence and enjoyment were moderately correlated among boys (p < 0.001) and girls (p < 0.05). Girls’ PE enjoyment was negatively associated with levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA, p < 0.05). Team games engaged students in most MVPA (p < 0.0001). Boys enjoyed team games more than girls, who in turn most enjoyed individual activities (p < 0.0001). Students classified in the low MVPA group reported higher levels of enjoyment than their high MVPA peers (p < 0.05). Continued research into the relationship between psychological outcomes and physical activity within PE is necessary to determine teaching approaches that most effectively promote physical activity participation.

INTRODUCTION

Physical education (PE) is a vital arena for promoting children’s physical activity participation. It has potential to encourage health benefits in children by helping them meet current physical activity recommendations (Biddle, Sallis and Cavill, 1998). Moreover, positive PE experiences may be important in encouraging lifelong physical activity habits, which can impact on future public health (Sallis and McKenzie, 1991; Shephard and Trudeau, 2000). However, in order to positively influence physical activity behaviours in PE it is important to address what motivates children and adolescents to continue and sustain their levels of activity (Weiss, 2000).

Children’s perceptions of their competence and enjoyment in PE are linked strongly with their attitudes towards the subject (Luke and Sinclair, 1991). Moreover, perceived competence and enjoyment in habitual activities are cited as being essential influences on young people’s physical activity participation (Weiss, 2000). Perceived competence refers to one’s beliefs about his or her ability in an achievement domain. These beliefs are formed by information gathered from the environment and significant others. Such information could take the form of peer comparisons or teacher feedback. According to cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985), events that satisfy a person’s need to feel competent enhance their intrinsic motivation within the activity in question, if achieved with some self-determined choice (Ferrer-Caja and Weiss, 2000). Competence motivation and achievement motivation theories have also conceptualised perceived competence to mediate intrinsic motivation (Harter, 1981; Nicholls, 1984). Harter’s (1981) theory of competence motivation proposes that the quality of an experience is the critical determinant for the development of perceived competence. Furthermore, the significance of perceptions of competence are dependent on the importance attached to particular achievement domains (i.e., athletic, scholastic, physical appearance, social acceptance, behavioural conduct) (Harter, 1985).

In sport and physical activity contexts, gender differences in perceived competence have been observed consistently, with boys possessing more positive perceptions of their physical competence than girls (Carroll and Loumidis, 2001; Telama, 1998; van Wersch, 1997). However, among physically active girls and boys differences in perceived competence are negligible (Lintunen, 1999). Thus, it is possible that the frequency or volume of participation in physical activity may be an important determinant of young people’s perceived physical competence. Furthermore, physically active children typically demonstrate more favourable perceptions of competence than their sedentary counterparts (Biddle and Armstrong, 1992). As girls tend to be less physically active than boys, this may reflect their lower perceived physical competence. In the PE setting girls’ perceived competence has been observed to decline with age, while for boys it remained stable (van Wersch, Trew and Turner, 1990). Boys’ criteria for judging physical competence revolve around competitive outcomes and ease of learning new skills, while girls assess their competence via internal and social sources (Weiss, 2000). Thus, it is likely that the content, group dynamics and delivery of PE lessons combine to influence girls’ and boys’ self-perceptions of physical competence. Perceived competence in PE has correlated with quantity and intensity of physical activity participation outside of school (Carroll and Loumidis, 2001). Moreover, structured or intensive physical activity has been more strongly associated with competence levels than unorganised or recreational activity (van Wersch, 1997; Telama, 1998). Young people who have strong feelings of competence are most likely to enjoy, and sustain interest in continuing their involvement in physical activity (Weiss and Ebbeck, 1996).

Enjoyable PE experiences are believed to be essential for children and adolescents’ current and future participation in physical activity (CDC, 1997). Enjoyment of physical activity has sometimes been treated synonymously with intrinsic motivation, when in fact it is a broader concept with multiple determinants (Markland and Hardy, 1997). Specifically, enjoyment and interest in an activity are consequences of intrinsic motivation, which may increase or sustain future participation (Ferrer-Caja and Weiss, 2000). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) proposed that people experience motivation (and enjoyment) when the challenge of the task they are involved in is comparable to their perceived ability level. If a task is too easy people become bored, and they may drop out if it is too difficult, because their levels of motivation and enjoyment will be less than optimal. Furthermore, enhanced motivation is more likely during self-directed tasks (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). This parallels with cognitive evaluation theory, in that intrinsic motivation is dependent on self-determined behaviour (Deci and Ryan, 1985).

Goudas and Biddle (1993) reported that children’s enjoyment in PE was primarily influenced by curriculum content, with boys’ and girls’ enjoyment best heightened by team games and individual activities, respectively. They also noted that children did not enjoy ‘being pushed hard’ by teachers, although no indication of the intensity of exertion was given to qualify this (Goudas and Biddle, 1993). Carroll and Loumidis (2001) reported that boys enjoyed PE more than girls. They also observed greater levels of habitual physical activity among students who most enjoyed PE. In addition, the significant correlation observed between enjoyment in PE and perceived competence (Carroll and Loumidis, 2001) supports the premise that when perceived competence is experienced in the context of self-determination, it predicts intrinsic motivation, which in turn can mediate feelings of enjoyment (Ferrer-Caja and Weiss, 2000). Because these positive feelings derived from PE are likely to be the best determinant of intention to be physically active (Biddle and Chatzisarantis, 1999), physical educators should provide enjoyable PE experiences that are underpinned by tasks and activities that challenge students at the appropriate level. However, little is known about the relationship between perceived competence, enjoyment and physical activity within PE lessons, as they have seldom been investigated together.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the association between high school students’ levels of perceived competence, enjoyment and health-enhancing physical activity within PE lessons. A secondary aim was to compare these variables between boys and girls who were involved in team games and individual activities. On the basis of previous research conducted into this area, it was hypothesised that, (a) perceived competence and enjoyment would be significantly related, (b) children who enjoy PE would be more likely to engage in higher levels of physical activity during lessons, (c) girls would enjoy individual activities more than team games, and vice-versa for boys, and (d) levels of physical activity would be greater during team games lessons.

METHOD

Subjects and settings

Ninety students (45 boys, 45 girls) from five state high schools in the Merseyside region of England volunteered to participate in this study. Stage sampling was used in each school to randomly select one boys’ and one girls’ PE class, in each of year groups 7 (11-12 yr), 8 (12-13 yr) and 9 (13-14 yr). PE teachers informed students within these classes about the study, and six boys and six girls were chosen by selecting every third name on the class register. Three of the six students were chosen as ‘reserves’ to replace those who may not have wished to take part, or who were refused parental permission to do so. Students who expressed a desire to participate received written informed consent, which was to be completed by themselves and their parents or guardians and returned to schools prior to the study commencing. At the end of the data collection period complete data sets were available from 73 students. The 21% attrition rate occurred because of consistent student absence and telemeter malfunction during collection of physical activity data. Thirty five students took part in individual activities during PE lessons (15 boys, 20 girls), and 38 participated in team games (25 boys, 13 girls). The schools taught the statutory programmes of study detailed in the English National Curriculum for PE [NCPE] (DfEE/QCA, 1999). The students attended PE classes in mixed ability, single sex groups and were taught by specialist physical educators of the same sex as themselves.

Instruments and procedures

The investigation received ethics committee approval from the Liverpool John Moores Research Degrees Ethics Committee. It formed part of an on-going project evaluating children’s physical activity in PE in relation to fitness parameters. The study involved the monitoring of physical activity during PE using heart rate telemetry (Vantage XL; Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). Post-lesson psychological questionnaires were completed to assess students’ enjoyment and perceived competence related to the particular lesson they had just participated in. Eighty two lessons were monitored covering a variety of team and individual games and movement activities (i.e., gymnastic activities, dance). In order to allow statistically meaningful comparisons between different types of activities, students were classified as participants in either team games (e.g., football, netball, volleyball, etc.) or individual activities (e.g., badminton, gymnastics, dance, etc.). Because data were collected during the autumn and winter terms, no traditional ‘summer’ activities (e.g., cricket, rounders, athletics) were included in the data collection. The researchers were present during the monitored lessons to ensure that no difficulties arose with regard to the fitting of the telemeters. During this time some informal observations of the lessons took place. These revealed that most teachers employed teacher-centred styles of delivery, rather than pupil-centred approaches.

Assessment of physical activity

Subjects were fitted with the telemeters while changing into their PE uniforms. Heart rate was recorded once every five seconds for the duration of the lessons. Telemeters were set to record when the teachers officially began the lessons, and stopped at the end of lessons. Total lesson ‘activity’ time was the equivalent of the total recorded time on the receiver. The telemeters were removed from each child and returned to the laboratory, where they were interfaced with a PC and data were downloaded for analyses (Polar Precision Performance 2.0; Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland).

Resting and maximum heart rate values were attained during the course of the data collection period. Although resting heart rates tend to exceed basal values recorded during sleep (Anderson, MCartney, Shinebourne and Tynan, 1987), the logistical difficulties of obtaining sleeping heart rates were such that an alternative best-fit method was devised. Resting heart rates were obtained from the students on non-PE days while they remained in a supine position for a period of 10 minutes. The lowest mean value obtained over one minute represented resting heart rate. It is acknowledged that these resting values may have been elevated above basal heart rates. Students achieved maximum heart rates following completion of the Balke treadmill test to assess cardiorespiratory fitness (Rowland, 1993). Students ran on the treadmill until fatigue caused them to terminate the test of their own volition. The highest heart rate attained during the test was recorded as maximum heart rate. Using the resting and maximum heart rate values, heart rate reserve (HRR) at the 50% threshold was calculated for each student (Karvonen and Vuorimaa, 1988). This threshold represents moderate physical activity (Stratton, 1996). Percentage of lesson time spent in health enhancing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was calculated for each student by summing his or her HRR threshold values ³ 50%.

Assessment of psychological measures

Immediately after the PE lessons students were taken to a quiet room where they completed an 8-item questionnaire to assess enjoyment and perceived competence. The items were taken from the enjoyment/interest and perceived competence subscales of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (McAuley, Duncan and Tammen, 1989). These consisted of statements relating to the activity the students had participated in (e.g., ‘I enjoyed this activity very much’ (enjoyment); ‘I think I am pretty good at this activity’ (perceived competence)). The students were required to respond to each statement on a 5-point Likert scale. They were told that the questionnaire was designed to measure ‘how they felt’ about the PE lesson they had just taken part in. Confidentiality of responses to all but the research team was guaranteed. Following completion, the questionnaires were scored and mean values for enjoyment and perceived competence were generated for subsequent analysis. Intrinsic motivation in PE is not a global concept, but varies according to the particular activity (Goudas, Biddle and Fox, 1994). On the basis that enjoyment can be a consequence of intrinsic motivation, it was hypothesised that enjoyment might similarly be dependent on a specific activity (Goudas and Biddle, 1993). Because a range of PE activities were monitored during the data collection period, the decision to repeat the questionnaire after each lesson was made in an attempt to gain an accurate indication of enjoyment and perceived competence reflecting the total PE experience.

Design and analysis

So as to cause minimal disruption to the PE classes, schools were visited once per week. On each occasion data were obtained from a maximum of three boys or girls from a pre-selected class. The PE teachers were instructed to teach their lessons as they would normally. They were asked not to place any special emphasis on activities that would increase heart rates more than usual (e.g., fitness work or circuit training), unless this was what the lesson would normally have focused upon. An aim was to monitor equal numbers of boys and girls in either team game or individual activity lessons. However, timetable constraints and student absence meant that true equity was not possible and so the number of boys and girls monitored in the different activities was unequal.