PSU Graduate School of Education

Graduate Writing 4

PSU Graduate School of Education

Special Education Programs

Expectations for Graduate Writing

Communication is an important part of an educator’s role. Therefore, it is especially important that those intending to become teachers pay attention to the clarity and form of their written communication. Writing that is disorganized and characterized by incorrect spelling, grammar, or punctuation negatively influences the reader’s judgment of the writer as a professional. Good writing is characterized by clear organization, correct use of the conventions of standard written English, and professionalism in the way the paper or project is presented. We’d like you to keep the guidelines below in mind as you write. Use them as a self-evaluation before you turn in a written assignment.

Organization

1. The organization should be logical.

The composition should begin with an introduction that establishes the relevance or importance of the topic. Sentences conveying topic information should be clustered around a few central ideas. The text structure should be appropriate for the purpose of writing.

EXAMPLE: Expository report (e.g., Asperger’s syndrome)

a.  Introduction (why Asperger’s syndrome is an important or relevant topic)

b.  Purpose of paper and overview of subtopics

c.  First subtopic

(1) Topic sentence (main idea)

(2) Facts, examples, and detail that support the main idea.

d.  Second subtopic

(1) Topic sentence (main idea)

(2) Facts, examples, and detail that support the main idea.

e.  Etc. for subsequent subtopics

f.  Summary and conclusion

EXAMPLE: Position/opinion paper (e.g., Portland schools should move toward an inclusion model)

a. Introduction (why inclusion is an important or relevant topic)

b. Clear statement of position/belief and introduction of reasons (in the same order as will be discussed in the body of the paper)

c. First reason

(1)  Topic sentence (first reason stated as main idea)

(2)  Facts, examples, and detail that support this reason.

d. Second reason

(1) Topic sentence (main idea)

(2) Facts, examples, and detail that support the main idea.

e. Third reason, etc.

f. Conclusion: restatement of position/belief and sentences telling how reasons discussed above support that position.

Points should be made in a logical order. Background information should precede conclusions. Remember that readers will best remember your first point and your last point, so make the less important points in the middle.

2. Headings and subheadings help guide the reader

Headings and subheadings help to make the text structure clear to the reader. They also help the instructor when looking back through the paper to find specific information. Several levels of headings/subheadings can be used.

TITLE (Centered and in caps)

Introduction to topic.....

..... (paragraph)

Heading 1 (Level 1 heading: center)

Text about your first subtopic....

..... (paragraphs)

Heading 2

Text about your second subtopic....

..... (paragraphs)

Supporting Topic (Level 2 subheading: italicize;

Text.... (paragraphs) text follows on next line)

Supporting Topic

Text.... (paragraphs) etc.

3. The writing is concise.

a. Careful organization will prevent repeating information throughout the paper unnecessarily.

b. Keep sentences short and clear. Long, complex sentences with several embedded clauses and phrases take longer to process and are more difficult to understand.

c. Avoid phrases that intend to sound erudite but make longer sentences. Don’t say "to be cognizant of" when saying to know is shorter and clearer. Don’t say "it is clear that" when clearly will do. The simple, more concise form is desirable.

d.  Watch for redundancy in word groups such as "clearly apparent," "close proximate," "each and every," "repeat again," or "connected together." Use one or the other, but not both.

e. Avoid using phrases like “I really believe” or “I feel that…”. The reader assumes that you wouldn’t state the opinion if you didn’t really believe it and it makes your writing sound less professional.

4. Topic sentences help the reader follow your ideas.

Good writing proceeds from the general to the specific. Identify the big idea or important generalization for your topic sentence. Follow with details and examples that support your main idea.

5. Transitional sentences and phrases help the reader follow your ideas. Consider these examples of sentences that link the information in the new paragraph to ideas in the preceding paragraph:

EXAMPLE 1
Further evidence of the need for structures in the workplace to support learning is provided in research by Harris et al (1998). / Reference to preceding idea
New information
EXAMPLE 2
In spite of the disadvantages of cloze techniques, they do provide you with a rough idea of how difficult a book or selection might be for a child. / Reference to preceding idea
New information
EXAMPLE 3
Third, no special modifications or adaptations are needed for Drew in work that requires use of his auditory system. / Reference to preceding points (“Third”)
New information

Mechanics

1. Use complete sentences.

Some phrases and clauses look like sentences because of their length. Do not be fooled. Each sentence must have a subject and predicate.

EXAMPLE: For example, children with learning disabilities and communication disorders. (This fragment has a long noun phrase but no predicate.)

EXAMPLE: When the parent has objected to the placement but the district has few other options. (This is one long adjectival clause telling when, but it is not a sentence.)

2. Double-check for misspellings and typos.

Remember that your spell-checker does not identify homonyms (e.g., there and their, principle and principal). It won’t identify form when you intended to write from. Also double check possessives and plurals (e.g., families or family’s).

Other frequently misspelled words: accommodation curriculum

rationale opportunity

3. Pay attention to grammar.

Students typically make errors in subject-verb agreement where the verb may be separated from the noun by another phrase. Students also sometimes err in their use of pronouns, using their, for example, after referring to he or she. When referring to people, use the relative pronoun who rather than that.

Refer to Chapter 9 in The Educator’s Writing Handbook.

4. Double-check punctuation.

The most frequent student errors are in the omission of apostrophes and commas. Many students also do not seem to understand appropriate uses for colons and semicolons.

Refer to Chapter 10 in The Educator’s Writing Handbook.

Professionalism

1. Put identifying information on all your work. The content of this information is at the discretion of the instructor. If the instructor gives you no specific instructions, identifying information should include at least your name, date, and student box number. An e-mail address is also helpful if the instructor wants to get in touch with you about the assignment.

2. Use a professional voice.

Think about the audience for whom the paper or project is intended. Do not be overly chatty or informal in your writing. Avoid using contractions and slang. You may occasionally use the first person (I, we), but do so judiciously and do not make the paper sound as if it is all about you.

3. Don’t plagiarize.

The PSU Bulletin (p. 65) defines plagiarism as “the appropriation of language, ideas, and products of another author or artist and representation of them as one’s own original work; failure to provide proper identification of source data; use of purchased or borrowed papers in graduate courses without complete identification of the source.” It is appropriate to use ideas or short amounts of information from a book or journal article if you cite the source. It is wrong to use an entire work from another author.

Use another author’s exact words only when you cannot paraphrase without sacrificing the clarity or beauty of the words. Make sure exact words are within quotation marks and the full citation is given (author’s last name, year, and page number). (See page 7, “How to Do Citations and References in APA Style” for an example.)

4.  Type your work in a font that is easy to read.

All graduate work should be typed (unless the instructor allows specific products to be neatly written). Use a standard font (e.g., Helvetica, Times, Courier, Arial) and a font size of 12. Double-spacing and margins of at least one inch on all sides of the paper allow room for the instructor to write comments.

When you must write something by hand, the writing should be neatly formed, evenly spaced, and legible. Mistakes should be neatly erased or crossed out. Avoid writing in the margins. Keep in mind that the instructor may be reading this fairly late in the evening. Make that reading task as easy as it can be.

5. The paper should maintain confidentiality.

When referring to children with whom you have worked, never use the last name. If students have a common first name (e.g., Maria or Ryan), it is acceptable to use their first name only, especially when the reader will not know the school or the class they attend. If a student has an unusual name (e.g., Demondre), it is best to use a pseudonym or just an initial (D.). Do not give the names of teachers, either, especially when something critical is said about the teacher or class.

These are basic guidelines for professional written work. Your instructors may give you additional guidelines for specific assignments.

How to Do Citations and References in APA Style

(American Psychological Association)

Citations in the body of the paper:

Method 1 ...isolate common issues that frequently serve as barriers to transition implementation (DeStefano, 2003).

Method 2 Reynolds and Wang (1987) reported that in some schools, special education teachers serve only in a resource capacity.

Method 3 (For multiple references)

...and their attitudes can greatly influence the effectiveness of a program (Leyser & Abrams, 2002; Reynolds, Wang, & Walberg, 1989; Zigmond, 2003).

(Note: "et al." is used only when there are three or more authors and the full reference has been previously given; e.g., Reynolds et al., 1989)

Method 4 (Direct quotes)

Benjamin (2000) defined standards as “a list of statements that describe the concepts and competencies that students should have in their grasp at the end of their schooling” (p. 35).

(Note that direct quotes require the page number.)

References at the end of the paper:

Title: References

For an article:

Author's Last Name, First Initial(s). (Year of publication in parentheses). Title of article. Journal in italics, Volume in italics (Issue number in parentheses), Pages.

EXAMPLE:

Klingner, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (2002). The changing roles and responsibilities of an LD specialist. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22(3), 136-139.

Note that only the first word of the title is capitalized. All words in the journal name are capitalized and italicized. Note also that you do not have to use the abbreviations "Vol." or "pp.". The volume and pages are clear from their position in the reference. The volume number is italicized also.

For a book:

Author's Last Name, Initial(s) (Year of publication in parentheses). Title of book. City of publication: Publisher.

EXAMPLE:

Kerr, M. M., & Nelson, C. M. (1989). Strategies for managing behavior problems in the classroom. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

For a second edition of a book (or third, fourth, etc.)

Smith-Beirne, M., Patton, J., & Ittenbach, R. (1994). Mental retardation (4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

For an article or chapter from an edited book:

Bjork, R. A. (1989). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Roediger & F. I. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory & consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.

For an ERIC document:

Mead, J. V. (1992). Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that novice teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTL-RR-4). East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 346 082)

For an unpublished paper from a conference or meeting:

Ney, J. W. (1981, April). Sentence combining: Everything for everybody or something for somebody. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Conference on English Education, San Francisco, CA.

Note: If found in ERIC, include the ERIC reproduction number at the end of the reference as in the previous example.

For an Internet source:

Benton Foundation (1998, July 7). Barriers to closing the gap. In Losing ground bit by bit: Low-income communities in the information age. Retrieved from http://www.benton. org/Library/Low-Income/two.html

References

American Psychological Association (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Portland State University (2003). Portland State University bulletin 2003-2004 (Vol.37, No. 4). Portland, OR: Author.

Reep, D. C., & Sharp, H. M. (1999). The educator’s writing handbook. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.