“Post-Enlightenment Academic Study of the Qur'an,” in Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an, 4:187-209 (Marco Schöller)

19th Century

Weil (1840) and Nöldeke (1860) and the beginnings of historical research

Chronology defined by formal and linguistic elements: 3 Meccan periods, 1 Medinan

Re-arrangement of suras: R. Blachère (1st ed. only) and R. Bell

Continuation of Nöldeke in 2nd ed. by F. Schwally (vol. 2) and G. Bergstrasser & O. Pretzl (vol. 3) (1909-38): collection of text, readings and variants

Nevertheless, no critical edition of the Qur’an

Unconscious hostility and condescension to “Oriental” text (Carlyle)

Methodological flaw: lack of attention to Muslim scholarship, except selective use of historical context

Further development of chronological study by Muir, Rodwell, Grimme, Hirshfeld, including the breakup of individual suras into components (Bell), with problematic results

Use of Qur’an for study of the life of Muhammad (A. Sprenger)

First half of 20th Century

New topics: foreign vocabulary, terminology, influence of older faiths, mysterious letters, language of Muhammad as inter-tribal koine

Relation of Islam to Judaism and Christianity (and other religious traditions) the dominant theme

Mostly specialized articles rather than general treatments

Second half of 20th Century

Comprehensive general works by Blachère, Arberry, and Bell (revised by Watt)

Lack of integration with other disciplines

New research on teachings of Qur’an (eschatology, ethics, anthropology, ritual)

Development of contextual study with attention to later exegesis, as something inseparable from understanding the text

Problem of deciding how to use later Islamic tradition (previously ignored)

Difficulties with reconstructing early historical context in relation to interpretative tradition: “a non-contextual understanding of the Qur’an will prove impossible and its attempt futile.”

Importance of legal use of Qur’an

New philological emphasis on grammar/syntax, analysis of individual suras in terms of liturgy (Neuwirth), linguistic computer analysis

Unsolved proposals

New hypotheses, considered speculative, but not refuted

Lüling’s (1974) proposal that the Qur’an was originally a Christian text, reinterpreted to create a new Islamic religion. Assumes vast fabrication of early Islamic history, also makes frequent changes in words to make point (challenged as circular argument that will “open the gates of semantic hell”); thus “conspiracy theories that do not admit of falsification”

“Ch. Luxenberg” (pseudonym) and 2000 proposal that the Qur’an was in Syriac misunderstood as Arabic.

Other revisionist proposals in 1977 by J. Burton, M. Cook and P. Crone (Hagarism), and J. Wansborough (Qur’anic studies) contradict the traditional notion of `Uthmanic recension of the Qur’an ca. 650 C.E.: either collection of the Qur’an by Muhammad (Burton) or 200 years later (Wansborough). At least they do not modify the text! Yet both are also conspiracy theories regarding early Islamic history. These arguments are impressive but the conclusions not accepted

Wansborough’s use of biblical and literary analysis leaves the historical question unresolvable

Prospects of further research

Agendas include:

connections to Arab world and South Arabia (neglected by emphasis on monotheistic religions)

eschatology and its near eastern parallels

role of the Qur’an as “token of piety, symbol of faith and liturgical document”

calligraphy and epigraphy

impact of the Qur’an on literature