Period 2

Organization and Reorganization

of HumanSocieties

▪ c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. ▪

Key Concept 2.1. The Development and Codification of Religiousand Cultural Traditions

I. Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions provideda bond among the people and an ethical code to live by.

A. The association of monotheism with Judaism was further developed withthe codification of the Hebrew Scriptures, which also showed Mesopotamian influences. Around 600 B.C.E. and 70 C.E., the Assyrian and Roman empires,respectively, created Jewish diasporic communities and destroyed the kingdomof Israel as a theocracy.

Notes: Diaspora means dispersion or the scattering of people. Diasporic communities maintain and preserve their people's cultural traditions, often in the face of persecution. Judaism is considered the world's first monotheistic religion. Monotheism is the belief in one deity. It was a foundation of Western society and Christianity. The Hebrew Bible was a history and law book written by Jews from their own past. In 539B.C.E. Cyrus allows 40,000 exiles back into Jerusalem to build the temples. Most Jews were doing well and refused to go back and thus began Jewish diaspora. Jews stayed true to their monotheistic faith regardless of their polytheistic rulers

B. The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of theVedic religions — often known as Hinduisms — which show some influence ofIndo-European traditions in the development of the social and political roles ofa caste system and in the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahma topromote teachings about reincarnation.

Notes:The caste system is based on hereditary distinctions between individuals and groups , according to their occupations and roles. Comes from the Portuguese word costa and it refers to a social class of hereditary and usually unchangeable status. The term varna was used color to distinguish social classes. There were four main varna. There were subcastes known as jati. Occupation determined jati. There was a category of untouchables who, if touched, defiled your status. Brahmins were the highest and have1,800 jatis. The caste system was never completely rigid but operated so as to accommodate social change. Groups collectively moved up together by moving to new areas or getting new jobs.

II. New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often assertinguniversal truths.

A. The core beliefs preached by the historic Buddha and recorded by his followersinto sutras and other scriptures were, in part, a reaction to the Vedic beliefsand rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism changed over time as itspread throughout Asia — first through the support of the Mauryan EmperorAshoka, and then through the efforts of missionaries and merchants, and theestablishment of educational institutions to promote its core teachings.

Notes:The Buddha was Siddhartha Gautma (founder of Buddhism). He wanted to achieve enlightenment.He wanted to change laws of righteousness(reaching nirvana and reincarnation). He rejected Vedic social structure (caste system), as well as rejecting Vedic g-ds and not allowing for his followers to worship them. Buddhism became a threat to Vedic order in India. Ashoka adopted Buddhism and made it the official religion of Mauryan Empire, causing Buddhism to become increasingly important. Over the Silk Road, merchants and missionaries, as well as pilgrims helped to spread Buddhism to areas such as China, Korea, and Japan.

B. Confucianism’s core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessonsof Confucius and were elaborated by key disciples who sought to promotesocial harmony by outlining proper rituals and social relationships for allpeople in China, including the rulers.

Notes:Confucianism was created by Confucius as a response to the Warring states period. He was originally a school teacher. His pupils collected ideas in a book called the Analects. He didn’t address philosophical questions, because he did not believe that it would help any issues. He created junzi, or superior individuals. Because there was no specific educational system, his disciples studied poetry and history. He believed that education was very important . Three main ideas were emphasized: ren, li, and xiao. Believed individuals who possessed these traits would gain influence in society, thus restoring Chinese political and social order. He had 2 major disciples- Mencius, and Xunzi. Mencius believed humans were good, placed emphasis on ren. He deeply influenced Confucian tradition. Xunzi believed that people are selfish, only way to control them was strong social discipline. Emphasized li, established well standards of conduct. Many Confucians held government positions.

C. In the major Daoist writings (such as the Daodejing), the core belief of balancebetween humans and nature assumed that the Chinese political systemwould be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the development ofChinese culture (such as medical theories and practices, poetry, metallurgy orarchitecture).

Notes:Daoism was focused on introspection, to bring harmony to society as a whole. There were two major writings: Daodejing and Zhuangzi, believed harmony between people and nature would indirectly affect politics. According to Daodejing, small self-sufficient communities were ideal. They would be so content that they wouldn’t even want to visit their neighbors. According to dao, one should retreat from world politics. Daoism added complexity to Chinese culture. Influenced medical theories such as acupuncture, poetry, metallurgy, and architecture, as well as alchemy and astronomy. It provided a counterbalance to extroversion of Confucianism. One may be both Confucianism and Daoist.

D. The core beliefs preached by Jesus of Nazareth drew on the basic monotheismof Judaism, and initially rejected Roman and Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility, Christianity spread through theefforts of missionaries and merchants through many parts of Afro-Eurasia,and eventually gained Roman imperial support by the time of EmperorConstantine.

Notes:Jesus of Nazareth was a Jewish teacher, explained devotion to g-d and love for humans. Attracted many followers due to reputation of wisdom and powers. This alarmed Romans because he said “The kingdom of g-d is at hand” which Roman rulers viewed as a threat to their Palestinian rule. They had him executed, where he came back to life. Because of this his disciples wrote the New Testament, based on Jesus’ life. Paul of Tarsus was a follower of Jesus, he spread Christianity. He traveled across Rome seeking converts. Converts were looked for in the Hellenistic world. Christianity beliefs attracted urban masses. Although Rome did want to destroy Christianity, by third century CE, Rome embraced the faith.

E. The core ideas in Greco-Roman philosophy and science emphasized logic,empirical observation, and the nature of political power and hierarchy.

Notes: Greek science was based on observable evidence, thought, and reasons to explain the world. For example, Democritus suggested atoms, Hippocrates worked in anatomy. They used a systematic approach to mathematics. The most important thing to the Greek was philosophy. It gave reason to human issues and the natural world. Three important philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates criticized democracy and Sophists. He believed in absolute truths, and came up with Socratic Method. He was aware that he knew nothing. Plato believed the ideal society is the republic, with three social classes. Lastly, Aristotle questioned the nature of the world, used today’s scientific method; he also used the rules of logic.

III. Belief systems affected gender roles (such as Buddhism’s encouragement of amonastic life or Confucianism’s emphasis on filial piety).

Notes: According to Classic of Filial Piety and Confucian morality said that appropriate virtues for women were humility, obedience, subservience, and devotion to father, husband and son. Ban Zhaowrote the Lessons For Women, she believed that education should be available to both girls and boys. (What she wrote was one of the most widespread statements on women in Chinese history.) Christianity allowed women to be active in the religious community, they could even be priests. Buddhism did not recognize any type of social distinction, and therefore allowed women to participate in many social and religious activities. Both Christianity and Buddhism allowed women to participate in monastic life.

IV. Other religious and cultural traditions continued parallel to the codified, writtenbelief systems in core civilizations.

A. Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within andoutside of core civilizations because of their daily reliance on the natural world.

Notes:Shamanism is a practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) reaching altered states of consciousness (trances, often achieved with mind-altering drugs) in order to encounter and interact with the spirit world.

B. Ancestor veneration persisted in many regions (such as in Africa, theMediterranean region, East Asia or the Andean areas).

Notes:Veneration of ancestors is where people living worship their deceased ancestors, believing that they could help the living relatives. In China they believed strongly in the veneration of ancestors. They believed that ancestors passed into another realm, where they could support and protect surviving family. The family would prosper if the ancestors helped them.African cultivators had distinct cultural and religious traditions. They had a monotheistic religious belief. Sudanic people thought that divine force could take individual spirit forms. They reached him through prayer. Niger-Congo peoples believed in one g-d that created the world and basic principles, then stepped back and allowed humans to function freely. They did not pray to their g-d, but instead prayed to other spirits.

V. Artistic expressions, including literature and drama, architecture, and sculpture,show distinctive cultural developments.

A. Literature and drama acquired distinctive forms (such as Greek tragedy orIndian epics) that influenced artistic developments in neighboring regions andin later time periods (such as in Athens, Persia or South Asia).

Notes:Indian epics were stories illustrating Hindu values. Brahmin scholars revised them and committed them to writing. Mahabharota was an epic that dealt with a bloody civil war for the control of northern India. Greek dramas began with tragedies that had a suffering hero and usually ended in disaster. They covered several universal themes, such as good and evil and the nature of human beings. Then came comedies. These writings contained crude humor and satirized politicians. This showed that Greeks could listen to criticism of themselves and their openness.

B. Distinctive architectural styles can be seen in Indian, Greek, Mesoamericanand Roman buildings.

Notes:Greeks had paintings on pottery to show everyday happenings. They also focused on the preferred body rather than a natural one. They made temples to their gods using marble columns. The Mesoamericans Made large monuments and pyramids to their gods. They added step stairs to ascend the pyramids. They also made monuments to predecessors. They also carved every day life into stones and pillars. They also made rock paintings of their gods. Romans made hundreds of statues, pools, fountains, and columns out of marble. The had monumental marble arches celebrating military victories and achievements. They also made aqueducts to transport water from the mountains. The Indians set up stone pillars promoting Buddhist teachings. They made sculptures of ideal Buddhist couples.

C. The convergence of Greco-Roman culture and Buddhist beliefs affected thedevelopment of unique sculptural developments, as seen in the GandharaBuddhas, which exemplify a syncretism in which Hellenistic veneration for thebody is combined with Buddhist symbols.

Notes:Hellenistic culture mad sculptures of a thinner, more realistic depiction of Siddhartha. They combined the Greek view of art with the Indian religion to create their sculptures, statues, and theatre plays.

Key Concept 2.2. The Development of States and Empires

I. The number and size of imperial societies grew dramatically by imposingpolitical unity on areas where previously there had been competing states.

NOTE: Students should know the location and names of the key states and empiresbelow.

A. Southwest Asia: Persian Empires (such as Achaemenid, Parthian or Sassanid)

Notes:Cyrus was king of Alchaemenid at first. The government depended on finely tuned balance between central initiative and local administration. They appointed governors to serve as agents of the central administration and oversee affairs in the various religions. Darious divided the realm into 23 satraps-administrative and taxation districts governed by satraps. Rulers built roads across their realm like the Persian Royal Road. The Sassanid “king of kings” provided strong rule from Parthia to Mesopotamia while rebuilding an elaborate system of administration and refurbishing cites. The sasanids created buffer states.The Parthians didn’t have a centralized government. They were skillful warriers and used horses. They governed through satraps.

B. East Asia: Qin and Han dynasties

Notes:The Qin Dynasty wasChinas first empire. It only lasted 15 years but was important because it set the stage for the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty, in China, selected government officials using the civil service examination. They had a centralized rule and were a bureaucracy. Young men from any class could rise in the state hierarchy through merit. Han Wudi gave large landholding to members of the imperial family, and also divided the empire into administrative districts governed by officials.

C. South Asia: Maurya and Gupta Empires

Notes: The Maurya Empire had centralized imperial states and a unified government over the Indian subcontinent. They had a strong military and standard coinage to promote trade. Taxes equal to one-fourth of the value of an annual harvest funded Mauryan kings and government, administrated by relatives and associates in districts based on traditional ethnic boundaries. The Gupta Empire was headquartered in the northeast and was a bureaucracy with a smaller intelligence network and less pervasive. They Guptas produced theater states to maintain power.

D. Mediterranean region: Phoenician and Greek colonization, Hellenistic andRoman Empires

Notes: The Greek colonization, by the fifth century BCE, had formed over 400 colonies. Located in Greece and eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. They had no central government and the colonies didn’t take guidance from the poleis from which their settlers come but, rather, relied on their own recourses. The Hellenistic era was ushered in by the conquests of Alexander (323-330 BCE). Lands in northeastern Africa and western Asia “Hellenized,” or were profoundly influenced by Greek culture. Hellenistic sculptors moved toward more emotional and realistic art and away from the ideal beauty prized by Greek classicism. Phoenicians wereorganized by a series of independent city states ruled by local kings on the Mediterranean coast. The Roman Empire was in what is now Eastern Europe. They fought Carthage in the Punic Wars.

E. Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Maya city-states

Notes:Teotihuacan was located in the basin of Mexico. It is significant for in complexity.Maya occupied a region in southern Mexico that included the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. Mayan civilization was a collection of numerous city-states or kingdoms. Mayan society featured kings and ruling families at the top, and a large class of priests who maintained an elaborate calendar and were the keepers of the society’s knowledge of writing, astronomy and mathematics

F. Andean South America: Moche

Notes:Moche flourished in northern Peru. They weren’t politically organized as a monolithic empire or as a state. Moche society was agriculturally based

II. Empires and states developed new techniques of imperial administration based,in part, on the success of earlier political forms.

A. In order to organize their subjects, the rulers created administrativeinstitutions, including centralized governments, elaborate legal systems andbureaucracies (such as in China, Persia, Rome or South Asia).

Notes:A bureaucracy is a body of nonelective government officials. Rome was a bureaucracy and so was the Maurya Empire. A lot of Empires had centralized governments as seen in Key Concept 1. A centralized government is where power is exerted to smaller units.

B. Imperial governments projected military power over larger areas using avariety of techniques, including diplomacy; developing supply lines; buildingfortifications, defensive walls and roads; and drawing new groups of militaryofficers and soldiers from the local populations or conquered peoples.

Notes: The Gupta Empire had a very strong military. Also, the Roman military borders and fortifications was a grand strategy. The Roman Empire was constantly expanding its borders. The empire included Britain and all of the land surrounding the northern and southern coast of the Mediterranean, from Iberia to Mesopotamia