Performance Benchmark N.8.B.2
Students know scientific knowledge is revised through a process of incorporating new evidence gained through on-going investigation and collaborative discussion. E/S
One of the challenges faced in teaching science is overcoming the misconception – held by many students, parents, the public, and even some teachers – that science is a dry, fact-based discipline in which everything is already known. As just one example, many know that gravity was first explained by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th Century and, since we still use his law of universal gravitation today, believe that nothing has changed.
To learn more about Newton, go to
Figure 1. Sir Isaac Newton
(From
In fact, this perception of science as unchanging is far from accurate. While Newton’s equations of gravity and of motion are still very helpful for us today, we also know that there is still much to be understood. Albert Einstein, in the early 20th Century, showed that gravity is more complex than what Newton formulated. Even so, scientists still seek to understand the fundamental cause of gravity and to unify our understanding of it with that of the electromagnetic force.
Figure 2. Albert Einstein
(From
To learn more about Albert Einstein, go to
To learn more about attempts for a “grand unified theory” of all fundamental forces, go to
There are many examples (too numerous to list here) of scientific ideas which may appear to be well-known and unchanging but which are still active areas of research. Scientists today work on problems old and new, continually adding to our knowledge base in a gradual progression. “Revolutions” of overturning old ideas for something completely new are rare (though not impossible); more often, scientists gather evidence from multiple sources over long periods of time.
So how is it that new evidence can come to light from what might at first appear to be a fairly objective, straight-forward experiment or calculation? One of the most common reasons is technological advances in gathering or analyzing data. As we continue to develop new instruments and processes and to increase computing power, additional evidence can be obtained to support or refute current scientific theories. Sometimes this new evidence is subtle, only a minor change from what we have seen before; sometimes it can be completely new and cause us to reconsider our ideas.
Another cause of science changing over time is the people working on various projects. Just as Einstein was able to look at gravity in a way that was significantly different than Newton, new researchers may bring novel ideas to the table or have unique interpretations of old data. Likewise, new research priorities (such as those set by federal funding support) can improve progress in one field while another may lag behind.
Because of new technologies, people, and emphasis, scientific understanding is forever changing. This isn’t all, however – the practice of science is changing as well. Newton and Einstein worked in relative isolation compared to today’s scientists. More often than not, scientists now work with collaborators that may range from down the hall to across the world, in order to maximize resources and share expertise. As just one example, a recent publication about results from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), an instrument that studies the residual light from the early universe, has more than 20 authors.
Science is ever changing as the result of scientists working together to create new investigations, look at old ideas with new technologies, and revisit our trusted theories with alternate interpretations. Unlike the dry memorization of facts that we may once have been exposed to, science is a dynamic and exciting field.
Performance Benchmark N.8.B.2
Students know scientific knowledge is revised through a process of incorporating new evidence gained through on-going investigation and collaborative discussion. E/S
Common misconceptions associated with this benchmark
The article by William McComas (1996), Myths of Science: Reexamining What We Think We Know… provides anample overview of misconceptions held by students regarding the nature of science. This article can be accessed at
- Students incorrectly believe that scientific laws and theories never change.
Scientific laws and theories can change when faced with new evidence. Although “school science” often presents those laws and theories about which we are most certain, ongoing investigations are continually taking place across disciplines and topics. As scientists observe the natural world with new and better instruments, evidence may cause us to change or adapt the theories that we had previously believed to be complete.
- Students incorrectly believe science is objective and well-scrutinized.
Although science as a field does strive to achieve these goals, the reality is that science is done by humans, individuals who are susceptible to their own desires, prejudices, and goals. Outside pressures, such as those created by a changing funding landscape or the need to publish results, can lead to scientific results that are, perhaps, not as carefully reviewed as others. Sometimes an idea put forth by a very young scientist or one who is outside of the normal structures such as universities or scientific societies may not be accepted early on.
- Students inaccurately believe evidence accumulated carefully results in sure knowledge.
Science, especially as a new discipline or research line begins, can often progress in fits and starts. Data collection, analysis, and interpretations are subject to the limitations of both our instruments and the scientists themselves, and so it is therefore possible that certain evidence may be inaccurate or inapplicable.
- Students incorrectly think that knowledge is static and unchanging.
If knowledge were static and unchanging, there would be no need for the scientific enterprise. However, scientific research is the backbone of many universities, and research companies and laboratories are continually looking for opportunities for expansion and growth. New areas of research ensure that knowledge is dynamic.
Performance Benchmark N.8.B.2
Students know scientific knowledge is revised through a process of incorporating new evidence gained through on-going investigation and collaborative discussion. E/S
Sample Test Questions
Questions and Answers to follow on a separate document
Performance Benchmark N.8.B.2
Students know scientific knowledge is revised through a process of incorporating new evidence gained through on-going investigation and collaborative discussion. E/S
Answers to Sample Test Questions
Questions and Answers to follow on a separate document
Performance Benchmark N.8.B.2
Students know scientific knowledge is revised through a process of incorporating new evidence gained through on-going investigation and collaborative discussion. E/S
Intervention Strategies and Resources
The following is a list of intervention strategies and resources that will facilitate student understanding of this benchmark.
- Evolution and the Nature of Science Institutes
The ENSI website contains several different lesson plans to illustrate aspects of the nature of science, as well as the limitations of science, pseudoscience, and social contexts.
To access lessons from Indiana University’s ENSI project, go to
- Modeling the Universe activity
This activity, developed by the educators and scientists in the NASA Structure and Evolution of the Universe missions, helps demonstrate how we go about developing models of the universe as a whole. It is particularly useful to see how many different models can be developed by different individuals.
To access the Modeling the Universe activity, go to
- Pseudoscience Lessons from Dr. Doug Duncan, University of Colorado
These lessons are designed to help students distinguish between science (such as astronomy) and pseudoscience (such as astrology). Dr. Duncan uses these for introductory astronomy courses, but the materials could be adapted to the high school level.
To access Dr. Duncan’s lessons on pseudoscience, go to
- “Science Is” Activity: How Science Ideas Change Over Time
This activity has students investigate historical scientists to look at the opposition they faced for their work when it was originally published, and how the ideas were eventually accepted by the scientific community.
To access this “Science Is” activity, go to