International Conference on Co-Management of Coastal Resources
Co-Management of Coastal Resources in
Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary, KohKongProvince, Cambodia
September 2009
Written by Kim Nong[1]
Koh Kong is one of four coastal provinces in Cambodia, and has the countries biggest area of mangrove forest. Mangrove forests are fertile, diverse saltwater ecosystems found in the coastal zone, and ensure inhabitants with food and shelter. These productive natural environments provide breeding habitat for a variety of birds, reptiles, mammals and insects. Similarly, mangroves also provide habitat to a variety of fish species, crustaceans and shellfish. New plant tissue is constantly being broken down within these forests, thereby contributing to the life support system for vast numbers of animal consumers including humans. Human dwellers further find a primary source of income, fuel, medicine and other basic necessity for their livelihood within mangrove forests.
Within Koh Kong province, Peam Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary (PKWS), one of Cambodia’s Protected Areas, boasts a unique mangrove ecosystem consisting of 23,750 hectares and spans over parts of three districts, and has around 10 000 people living within its borders. This area is influenced by inter-tidal levels and water from highland areas. Indeed, the estuarine areas are the intersection between freshwater and saltwater, especially during the rainy season. Within the same area, Koh Kapic and associated islands have been nominated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention.
PKWS provides favorable conditions for fishery and other resources. Many people have resided on and done various occupations for their livelihoods and are dependent upon the natural resources in this area. PKWS and Koh Kapic Ramsar Site in Koh Kong have some of the best remaining examples of mangrove forests in the Gulf of Thailand, as many other areas have been cleared for intensive shrimp aquaculture, large-scale charcoal production, and other purposes.
Although the coastline, particularly KohKongProvince, is relatively unpopulated there has been a rapid increase in migration into the province, especially, in PKWS due to improved security and short-term economic opportunities. Population pressures and marketing opportunities place greater pressure on the mangroves and aquatic resources within and surrounding PKWS.
PMCR
In 1998 the Participatory Management of Coastal Resources (PMCR) began working with local communities to better understand livelihood and management issues in PKWS. The team, funded by Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), is composed of government staff, at the national and provincial levels, from various technical departments. The lead institution is the Ministry of Environment (MoE); the provincial team is interdisciplinary. PMCR team members come from the Department of Environment, the Department of Fisheries, the Department of Rural Development and the Department of Women's Affairs. This project supports a strategy of community-based coastal resource management (CBCRM) and the focal point of PMCR's work in PKWS is five coastal villages.
The PMCR project has worked hard to establish good relationships and co-operation with all governmental levels: the PMCR team facilitates between the national level government and local people. The importance of this type of co-operation cannot be undervalued, and in Cambodia is imperative if government policies and laws are to be implemented in a successful manner. In the capacity building of provincial and local authorities, the PMCR team has held many training courses and sent provincial and local leaders to participate in training courses on mangrove forest management in Thailand and local villagers on study tours to other areas in Cambodia working on community-based resource management. Research includes a focus on understanding resource use patterns, marketing influences, livelihood issues, management issues and the socio-economic realities that community members face. This micro-level work provides useful insights that can be applied to other villages within PKWS and in Koh Kong province.
Life in PKWS
After Cambodia’s liberation from the Khmer Rouge (KR) in 1979, Cambodians were able, again, to live individually as family units, to own private property and, importantly, to establish businesses to earn their livelihood[2]. Koh Kong was quite unpopulated, and national government policy encouraged people to live in Koh Kong. There has been a net influx of people since 1979; in fact, it is estimated that the average annual growth rate in Koh Kong is 16 %. Unfortunately, over time the increase in population has put pressure on mangrove resources.
During the late 1980's and into the 1990s, Koh Kong town and province have developed rapidly, partially in response to market pressures from Thailand and to in-migration. Many residents in the mangrove forests of PKWS are economic migrants and internally displaced persons from inland areas of the country, and are therefore without traditional ties to the landscape or experience in its management. This movement of peoples in response to the post-conflict dimension of Cambodian reality is an essential element in the analysis and promotion of social and political stability in the country.
In PKWS, there have been significant changes in resource abundance over time[3]. Most villagers, even those that have lived in the area for only a few years, are able to discuss the changes in resources and suggest possible reasons.
"Prior we could catch more fish at the night time with small fishing gear: the mangrove forest was not destroyed, low population, fishing used traditional method and all activities in this area were strong controlled by government and government has providing program to local people every months for mangrove protection and mangrove replanting (1960s). At the present (1990s), fish production has dramatically declined due to the use of modern equipment, influx migration, illegal fishing, mangrove destruction and poor management. Fishers ensure that they also concern about the decline of fish production because there are now no proper management and responsibility over natural resources (Mr. Chup Tit Chief of Peam Krasaop Commune, March 1999)."
Where villagers are not always able to make a link is between the cutting of mangrove trees for charcoal and the decline in fisheries resources (some do and some do not)[4].
Villagers remain highly dependent upon their environment: aquatic resources are used for subsistence and income generating purposes, mangroves provide breeding grounds and protection for aquatic resources, other wildlife and a source of fuel wood. People are poor - resources are declining, houses leak during the rainy season, there is not an adequate water supply in most villages, there are few schools and those that are open only offer grades one and two, and there are few clinics in any of the villages. Life in PKWS is dynamic: weather, foreign markets, illness and availability of resources all have an influence on village life.
Livelihood Activities[5]
Fishing Activities
Fishing methods and seasons have changed over time. As the population has increased, so too has the number of fishers in the PKWS area. Especially since 1990 when the Thai market has opened up and more efficient fishing gear was introduced (often illegal i.e. cyanide fishing or illegal trawling), villagers have noticed a gradual decline in resources. Most people in PKWS no longer fish merely for subsistence purposes, and while some people continue to crab trap, other fishing gear is also used. Fishers now use nylon nets; trawlers use polysynthetic nets. Push netting and trawling in shallow waters is illegal, as is dynamite and cyanide fishing; however, illegal fishing is quite popular.
General, the following small-scale types of fishing gear are found in PKWS:
Crab Trap: Used to catch mangrove mud crabs and swimming crabs. Fishers use a rowboat with fixed oars or long tern boats with a 5 Hp engine. Families may have anything between 100 to more than 300 traps, with one or two members crab trapping;
Crab Net: Used to catch swimming crab. People use a long stern boat with a 5 Hp engine. Two people operate the crab traps. Each family has between 3-5 Units of net (1Unit = 10 Hands, 1 Hand = 25 m);
Fish Net: People use different sizes of fish nets to catch fish in sites near the coastline and in the sea. People use a long stern boat with engines of different horsepower.
There are two types of fish processing, described as follows:
Small-scale or subsistence processing: dried salt fish, salt fish, fish sauce, mollusk fermentation etc;
Large-scale or market processing: shelling of crab for pure meat, small shrimp fermentation, jellyfish processing, fish freezing etc. These products are exported to Thailand and sold to local markets.
The following species are the most frequently caught by fishers: mangrove mud crab, swimming crab, shrimp, prawn, grouper, green mullet, red snapper, and sea-bass because such species can be sold in high price. Other species are also sold in low price to the market.
Life as a fisher is difficult, both in terms of labor and the amount of effort it takes per catch. Resources are affected by population increases, mangrove cutting, the use of modern fishing gear and illegal fishing activities within PKWS. Some people can easily survive from fishing resources, especially if they have access to large boats or illegal gear; however, many fishers do not have enough money to support their livelihood, subsequently becoming in-debt to the middle-person.
Fishers sell their fish production to a local middle-person, not directly to the market since transportation is expensive and time-consuming and the small-scale fisher often does not have enough products to sell themselves directly to the market. Fishers who borrow money or need support from the middle-person, in return, have to sell their product back. Other fishers, who do not owe money to the middle-person, can sell their product to any middle-person or, if they have a large boat, to the market directly.
Charcoal Production
Charcoal production increased dramatically in the 1990's: the potential for easy profit through the Thai market lured many Khmer's into this area. Too much pressure was placed upon the mangroves, and some of the best mangrove stands were decimated. Even though charcoal production is illegal, it has been really difficult, until recently, for the Department of Environment to curb such activities. The government started to destroy charcoal kilns. As more kilns were destroyed, some former charcoal producers became middlemen while poor people fled deeper into the mangroves to avoid detection. Because of a lack of budget for monitoring and enforcement, the government had difficulty in stopping these illegal activities. However, the Department of Environment has been trying consistently to stop charcoal production for the past few years and, with the help of the 1999 ban on illegal logging activities, charcoal production has dramatically decreased.
Those that make charcoal are poor: the profit that they get from their jobs is not enough for living. Few middle-persons are willing to support charcoal production (many middle-persons are now involved in fisheries activities). Far fewer people are coming into PKWS to make charcoal, and those that do find it difficult to live. The days of large charcoal kilns and profits are gone; indeed, life has become extremely difficult and risky for charcoal producers.
The average market price for charcoal
Year / Price per kg in Thai Baht / Price per kg in$ US
1997 / 2.15 Baht / $ 0.05
1998 / 2.4 Baht / $ 0.05
1999 / 2.55 Baht / $ 0.06
2000 / 4.16 Baht / $ 0.1
2000 to Now / No mangrove charcoals have produced in PKWS, because all stakeholders had aware on coastal resource conservation and protection.
Source: PMCR team observations
As less charcoal is produced in PKWS, the profit for charcoal production has increased. While charcoal production activities do continue, it is seen as too risky for most people to be involved in unless absolutely desperate. Charcoal production is no longer seen as a profitable business in spite of the lure from the Thai market. From the middle of 2000 mangrove charcoal was no longer sold to any market when the local community in PKWS has been understood the important of mangrove resources with the action research project of PMCR.
Farming
In PKWS area, there is not enough farmland for local people, except in Toul Korki commune. Farmers are found in Toul Korki commune. In this commune, this land area is more than enough for agriculture or upland farming. Rice production in this commune is produced for local consumption. Villagers make their money from upland farming, small-scale fishing activities, animal husbandry and other livelihood enhancement opportunities.
Aquaculture
To date, aquaculture in PKWS has included extensive, semi-intensive and intensive shrimp pond culture, crab farms, green mussel culture and limited fish cage culture.
Perhaps shrimp culture began in a limited manner in the early 1980’s. By the early 1990’s, investors from Thailand became interested in the Cambodian market. Apparently, Thai investors had World Bank money and needed to spend it so they picked the Cambodian market, even though experts warned of potential problems. The soils are too peaty and no matter how much lime one adds to compensate, the pH remains too acidic. By 1997, there were 23 shrimp farms that covered over 800 ha. However, nowadays all shrimp farms in PKWS have stopped operations.
Green mussel culture
Green mussel culture began near Koh Kang village, PKWS in 1994. Initially, green mussels were cultured as feed for the shrimp farms (between 1994 - 1997). However, when shrimp farms collapsed in 1998 people were forced to find alternative markets for their product. The market price in Thailand was high, and people began exporting green mussels and in 1999 the number of people growing green mussels increased.
Fish culture
Grouper and snapper culture were tried, unsuccessfully, with one villager near Koh Sralao. Grouper culture began in January 1999, and was followed by snapper culture in February 1999. Although the project was begun enthusiastically, the villager, eventually, lost interest.
Grouper culture and snapper culture were not successful because:
- Siting – the cages were placed too close to the house, for security reasons, with low tides of less than 1 m;
- Upland runoff – in the upland areas, one of the yellow creepers are processed into a powder that is then exported to Vietnam to be used in some medicine. When processing this plant, sulfuric acid and cloridic acid are used;
- Cyanide fishing – these wastes are harmful to the fish; the grouper did not appear healthy;
- Market constraints – the Thai market was unstable i.e. buying and selling price the same; therefore, no profit;
- Costs – it is difficult to find trash fish for feed. Snapper especially like to eat a lot;
- Freshwater – since one can only raise saltwater fish for a six month period until the rains begin, this is not a suitable time period to raise fish for the market.
Other Livelihood Activities
Besides the jobs are mentioned above, villagers of PKWS are engaged in a series of subsistence and market activities including: wine making, water selling, goods selling, boat taxi, hunting, fix machine and hiring labor.
Issues in PKWS
General Knowledge
Because so many people are newcomers, local environmental knowledge is difficult to access and, therefore, to pass on. Many people in the villages have had little access to formal education and many are illiterate. The Chief of Koh Sralao suggested that 66 % of the villagers either had minimal education or were illiterate and perhaps 34 % held a medium education level (grade 2, 3 or 4). Unfortunately, people did not have access to education during the Lon Nol (1970 – 1975) and Khmer Rouge (1975 – 1979) period. For children coming into PKWS, unless young, there is no chance to go to school.
Security
Security in Koh Kong has improved last 10 years. Before, there were many places that the team could not visit and it was necessary to inform the proper authorities of field visits. This all took time to organize. Now the team can travel throughout PKWS to visit various sites and villages without any problems. Villagers can now travel freely between Koh Kong town and their villages.
In Cambodia, the military navy is very influential along the coastline. For example, in Koh Kong they control all islands in the sea, including KohKongIsland, and the open sea. Therefore, the Department of Fisheries, who are legally in charge of off shore fisheries, cannot control the number of boats and equipment used in the open sea. The Navy reaps a benefit from fishery resources while small-scale fishers find their yields declining. Before some local police in the PKWS area were supporting small-scale illegal activities i.e. charcoal production and mangrove cutting. This is changing now: almost local police and Navy are working with local community, provincial department of environment checkpoint staff to protect resources in PKWS.