The Reformation- A Summary

Part 1 – The Reformation begins in Europe

Causes of the Reformation

  • In 1517, German monk Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses, criticising the Catholic Church, to the door of the Church in Wurttemberg.
  • Using the new technology of the printing press, Luther and his supporters distributed booklets of his ideas across Germany, and soon across Europe too.
  • Luther found many supporters within Germany- many agreed with his criticisms of the Church, and others believed Luther’s ideas would help them in their campaign against the Catholic Emperor Charles V.
  • Luther was excommunicated by the Pope in 1521; his followers became known as Protestants, and quickly formed a new denomination within the Church.

Luther’s Criticisms of the Catholic Church

  • The Church had moved away from the teachings of Jesus and the Bible, creating its own system about how to get to heaven. In particular, the giving of indulgences (enabling people to reach heaven more quickly) in return for good deeds or donating to the Church, was wrong.
  • Luther was especially critical of the selling of indulgences, which he viewed as corrupt and a way of exploiting poor people in order to make the Church rich.
  • Luther stated that the only way to heaven was through faith in Jesus as the son of God; those people who had faith would go to heaven straight after death rather than spending time being purified in Purgatory.
  • Luther believed the Bible should be translated into German (and other European languages) to enable ordinary people to understand it. As long as the Bible remained in Latin, the Church could ignore its teachings, without being challenged.

Other Differences between Protestants and Catholics

Catholic beliefs / Protestant beliefs
The Pope was the Head of the Church / Individual monarchs should control the Church in their country
Churches (and priests’ vestments) should be well-decorated / Decoration distracted people from God- churches and vestments should be plain
During the Mass, the bread and wine stopped being bread and wine and became the body and blood of Jesus (transubstantiation); the priest would lift up the bread at the moment of transformation (Elevation of the Host) / The bread and wine remained as bread and wine. There was no need to lift up the bread.
The priest was especially holy, having been chosen and set apart by God; only the priest needed to consume both bread and wine; the people needed neither- or just bread. / The priest was no more important than other worshippers; both the priest and the people should consume bread and wine (Communion in both kinds.)

Part 2- The English Reaction to the Reformation

Although Luther’s ideas spread quickly to England and there were pockets of support, there were also several reasons why Roman Catholic Christianity remained the official religion of Henry’s England in the 1520’s.

Evidence of Support for Protestantism

Wolsey’s behaviour persuaded some people that Luther’s attack on Catholic corruption was correct. Wolsey lived openly with his mistress until 1519, and had two illegitimate children. His wide range of well-paid positions in the Church allowed his to live a lavish lifestyle. He was criticised for plurality (holding several posts at once) and absenteeism (being away from each post for long periods).

There was a long history of criticism of the Catholic Church in England. John Wycliffe claimed in the 14th century that the Bible was more important than the Pope, and criticised excessive devotion to the saints. Descendants of his followers, called the Lollards, survived in Bristol and in the south-east, where the Bishop of London criticised them for heresy in 1515.

Luther’s criticisms reached England quickly, thanks to the activities of merchants and traders. Ports in the south-east received Protestant literature easily, as they traded with northern Europe.

A group of Lutheran supporters met at the White Horse pub in Cambridge to discuss his views; they were helped by William Tyndale’s translation of the Bible into English.

Reasons why Catholicism remained strong

Both Henry and Wolsey were committed to the Catholic faith. Wolsey, as Papal Legate, encouraged Henry to defend Catholicism, which Henry did in a book of 1521. The Pope rewarded Henry with the title “Defender of the Faith.”

Wolsey acted firmly against Protestants; this discouraged others from actively promoting Lutheran ideas. Public burnings of Luther’s books were held in 1521, and Protestant sympathisers, mainly in universities, were arrested and punished.

Most ordinary people remained loyal to the Catholic Church, which they had grown up with and which provided stability and a sense of community. Many new churches were built in this period, thanks to the enthusiastic way in which ordinary people donated money. Anti-clericalism (opposition to priests and the Church) was limited, according to historians Haigh and Duffy.

Wolsey also worked hard to make the Catholic Church more attractive. He ordered bishops to perform their duties more carefully and conscientiously, and ordered inspections of monasteries. At least 24 monasteries were closed down because of the corruption of the monks, and eight unsuitable heads of monasteries were removed. Wolsey also improved religious education in order to produce better priests.

Part 3- A Boost for English Protestantism: Henry Seeks a Divorce

By 1527, Henry -infatuated with Anne Boleyn- wanted to divorce Catherine. (Anne had made it clear she would not be Henry’s mistress.)

In order to divorce Catherine, Henry would need the Pope’s support. This would not be easy: the Pope was under the influence of Emperor Charles V, who controlled Italy. Charles was Catherine’s nephew.

Wolsey attempted to use a Bible verse to argue that Henry’s lack of a male heir was God’s punishment and the marriage should be annulled (“if a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an impurity; they shall be childless”). However, experts did not agree on the precise interpretation of this verse: Wolsey’s argument failed.

Wolsey allied with France, and renewed war in Italy in order to distract Charles, but Charles’ position was so strong that French power could not remove him from Italy.

Wolsey’s attempts to bypass the Pope by holding the divorce hearing in England also failed. The Pope allowed an English hearing, but sent Cardinal Campeggio to England to delay it and make sure a decision was never reached. Campeggio’s long journey and ill-health also worked in the Pope’s favour!

One Thomas Goes, Three Thomases Emerge

The court finally met in June 1529, but Catherine refused to recognise it, and asked the Pope to move the hearing to Rome. The Pope agreed, and the English court was disbanded.

Encouraged by Anne Boleyn’s family (who were growing increasingly powerful) Henry accused Wolsey of the crime of Praemunire - working in the Pope’s interests rather than his own.

Wolsey was exiled to York and stripped of his power. He died in Leicester in 1530, on his way to stand trial in London. 15 senior priests were also charged with supporting Wolsey’s abuses of power.

Wolsey was replaced as Lord Chancellor by Sir Thomas More. Although More was a humanist, who criticised aspects of the Catholic Church, he saw Protestantism as heresy (persecuting Lutherans between 1528 and 1531.) More became increasingly isolated as he opposed Henry’s divorce.

This period also saw the emergence of Thomas Cromwell. He made his name as an MP from 1529, attacking the corruption of the Catholic Church. As a member of the Royal Council from 1532, he played a leading role in managing Henry’s divorce and in the creation of the Church of England. His appointment as Vicar-General in 1535 gave him significant power to reform the Church.

Thomas Cranmer was another leading figure of the 1530s. An early supporter of Luther, he wrote a defence of Henry’s desire for a divorce and became chaplain to Anne Boleyn’s father. In 1532, Henry appointed him as Archbishop of Canterbury, and he authorised the divorce in 1533. Cranmer was a loyal supporter of Henry, even accepting more “Catholic” policies despite his Protestant beliefs.

Part 4- Henry Gains a Divorce and the Church of England is Created

  • Henry’s quest for a divorce was helped by his alliance with Protestant reformers, who shared his view that the power of the Catholic Church was a problem. They also agreed that the way to deal with the problem was strengthening the power of the monarch, who could then help to develop the Church. In particular, Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell both encouraged Henry to resist the power of the Catholic Church.
  • Henry’s strategy for obtaining a divorce gradually shifted from putting pressure on the Pope to actively challenging the Pope over who should control the Church (the monarch or the Pope himself?)
  • Some historians (e.g. Russell) say that Henry had decided as early as 1527 to take control of the English Church (he was simply biding his time until he could appoint more of his supporters to senior church positions- e.g. once Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, died).
  • Others (e.g. Haigh) claim that Henry was reluctant to challenge the Pope’s position, as it was too dangerous. Parliament was not especially sympathetic to Protestant ideas. In addition, if Henry was excommunicated, the oaths of loyalty taken by the English people would no longer apply, and rebellion might be encouraged by the Church.

Key Dates in the Granting of the Divorce

Year / Event
1530 / Scholars from Oxford and Cambridge were sent to European universities to find support for the divorce.
Jan 1533 / Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn (who was now pregnant).
1533 / Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals, which stopped Henry’s subjects appealing to the Pope against decisions made by English church courts. This was to stop Catherine appealing to the Pope when the divorce hearing came to court.
May 1533 / Divorce court convened, under Cranmer. The court accepted the biblical arguments that Henry’s marriage to Catherine was invalid.
June 1533 / Anne Boleyn crowned as Queen
1535 / More was executed for refusing to take the Oath of Succession which recognised the legality of Henry’s divorce.

Key Dates in Henry’s Creation of the Church of England

1531 / Henry demanded that the clergy recognise him as “sole protector and supreme head” of the Church. Eventually, they agreed to accept him as supreme head “as far as the law of Christ allows.” Henry also “pardoned” the clergy of “crimes” against him.
Jan 1532 / Act of Parliament preventing the payment of annates (a tax paid by senior clergy in their first year in post) to the Pope. The law passed despite fierce opposition from some MP’s; it was suspended for a year (a sign of how controversial it was.)
Mar 1532 / Cromwell introduced the “Supplication Against the Ordinaries” into the Commons- this was a petition calling on Henry to deal with the abuses of the clergy.
May 1532 / Henry demanded the Church agree to the “Submission of the Clergy”- a document giving him power to veto Church laws and choose bishops, even if not approved by Rome. More resigned as Lord Chancellor in response.
1534 / Act of Supremacy passed, acknowledging Henry as Head of the Church.
1534 / Treason Act passed, imposing the death penalty for denying Henry’s supremacy over the Church.

Part 5- Analysis: How Protestant was the Church of England by 1540?

Evidence that the Church of England was Protestant

Henry was Head of the Church: by definition, this makes the Church Protestant rather than Catholic.

As a committed Protestant, Anne protected leading “heretics” such as Robert Forman. She was also influential in the appointment of leading Protestants Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Shaxton as bishops, and Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury.

Although Anne was executed in 1536, his third wife, Jane Seymour, also came from a leading Protestant family.

By 1536, many leading councillors were fervent Protestants- this influenced the religious debate at Court.

Preachers including John Bale and Robert Barnes spread Protestant ideas in London; Cranmer also encouraged the work of Protestant preachers in Suffolk, Essex and Kent.

Government propaganda promoted Protestant ideas: written Acts of Parliament often began with a reference to the political control of Roman emperors (as opposed to the Pope) over the early Church. Henry acknowledged that bishops had spiritual power, but he claimed political power over the Church for himself.

Even bishops who were suspicious of Protestantism were keen to stress Henry’s control of the Church. Bishop Gardiner’s pamphlet De Vera Obedentia told readers to obey Henry, as God’s chosen ruler. (Gardiner was confident that Henry would use this control to crush Protestant heresy!)

Cromwell encouraged Protestant writers, such as Thomas Starkey, whose Exhortation to Unity and Obedience (1536) claimed the Bible (not the Pope) was the only source of authority for Christians- and that the Bible made it clear that the monarch should be obeyed.

The Ten Articles of Faith, issued by Cromwell, did not mention Purgatory, and emphasised faith as the way to heaven, rather than good works or gaining indulgences.

These articles were enforced by two sets of Injunctions in 1536 and 1538, and a Bishop’s Book was published in 1537 to help clergy interpret the articles. The Injunctions and the Bishop’s Book attacked Catholic “superstitions”.

In 1537, the first official English Bible was published, based on the work of Tyndale and Coverdale. In 1538, a Royal Proclamation ordered that a copy should be placed in every church, to be read by the congregation.

Evidence that the Church of England had “Catholic” Elements

Henry himself had never been fully convinced by Protestant beliefs. His need for a divorce led to his establishment of the Church of England, but he retained a core of Catholic beliefs including transubstantiation, and the importance of elaborate vestments and church decoration.

As a result, there was no widespread programme to make local churches look more Protestant: to a large extent, statues, icons and decoration remained.

The Ten Articles include prayer for the dead, seen as a Catholic practice. The wording of the Mass was also Catholic, suggesting a continued belief in transubstantiation.

Cromwell’s role in arranging Henry’s disastrous fourth marriage to Anne of Cleves led to his downfall. This, alongside Henry’s need for Catholic allies in Europe, led to a move towards more Catholic ideas from 1539 to 1540.

The Six Articles of 1539 were very “Catholic” in emphasis they re-emphasised belief in transubstantiation, communion in one kind, the seven sacraments, and celibacy of priests. This reflected the influence of the Duke of Norfolk, who (as Catherine Howard’s uncle) was in favour with Henry. In response, Latimer and Shaxton resigned, reducing Protestant influence.

Part 6: The Dissolution of the Monasteries

  • There were 825 religious houses in England at the start of Henry’s reign. Most of these owned significant amounts of land and provided employment for many local labourers. Religious houses also gave shelter to travellers, provided medicine and food for those in need, and education for those rich enough to afford it.
  • In the Middle Ages, monks and nuns were well respected, especially as they spent much of their day praying for their fellow villagers, both the living and the dead. However, by 1509, this respect had begun to disappear. Some monasteries housed fewer than 12 monks, and appeared to do little good. Many monasteries had become extremely wealthy, and some monks were viewed as greedy.

Year / Event
1534 / Act of Supremacy gave Henry the power to reform all religious establishments in England.
1535 / Cromwell sent commissioners to produce a report on the value of monastic land. He also sent another group of commissioners to produce a report on moral and spiritual standards in the monasteries.
1536 / Parliament passed the Act for the Dissolution of the Smaller Monasteries, closing all religious houses with lands valued at under £200 per year. The official reason was that monks’ and nuns’ behaviour was corrupt but (as you will see) there were more significant reasons than this.
1539 / Parliament passed the Act for the Dissolution of Larger Monasteries, extending the closures to bigger monasteries and nunneries too.
1540 / The Court of Augmentations was established, to handle the property and income from the dissolved monasteries.

Causes of the Dissolution

  • The official reason for the dissolution was the “corruption” of the monks, discovered by Cromwell’s commissioners. However, the causes of the dissolution were more complex than this:
  • The monasteries had the potential to double Henry’s annual income- this would help Henry to pay for war, especially with France.
  • Henry could also give monastic land to nobles and the gentry, in order to secure and maintain their support.
  • Monasteries, as centres of Catholic belief, were the most likely source of rebellion against Henry’s Protestant reforms, unless they were dissolved.
  • Many Protestants saw the monasteries as outdated: their primary role of praying for the dead seemed irrelevant, since belief in Purgatory was no longer required.

Consequences of the Dissolution