Family and Life Cycle Beliefs and Practices
of TheOhlone Native People
California First People’s Research Paper
JourdanSelkowitz
History 3 Halper
Ohlone People From Monterey to San Francisco
The Ohlone, a group of California native Americans, lived a peaceful subsistence based lifestyle in central California for hundreds of years prior to the rise of the California Mission system in the 1770s.The term Costanoan, which is derived from the Spanish wordCostenos, meaning “coast people,”is used interchangeably with Ohlone and identifies native people who lived along the coast from Point Sur north to San Francisco and inland to the Diablo Range. Eight identified common languages were spokenamongst them (Levy 485). These were the Karkin, Chochenyo, Tamyen, Ramaytush, Awaswas, Mutsun, Rumsen, and Chalon (485). There was also fifty different tribelets, or individual divisions of the eight language groups (485). Ohlone people lived on land presently known as Monterey, Carmel, San Jose, Santa Cruz, San Juan Bautista, and Berkeley (485).
Family Beliefs
Ohlone families averaged in size from 10-15 people per household (Halper). Every person from birth to death was bound to their family, clan, and tribelet (Margolin 72-73). It was their purpose to strengthen these bonds over their lifetime; to tie themselves down and tie others to them. Belonging gave them a sense of strength, joy, fulfillment, identity, security, and purpose (Margolin72-73).
People lived communally and valued generosity and sharing. When a hunter killed a deer for example, the meat was first shared with family and community members, sometimes the hunter received none (Margolin89). Through sharing, individuals strengthened their place in the family and tribelet and could count on their support and security in times of need (MargolinThe 89). It was a reciprocal system in which people cared for one another.
Child Raising Beliefs
From the first day of life an Ohlone newborn began on a lifelong journey of commitment to family, community, and to learn the Ohlone way just as ancestors did for hundreds of years prior (Margolin72-73). The child was taught one way, that there is no other successful way of living but their own and wasn’t even able to imagine life otherwise. An Ohlone child grew up seeking not to improve, innovate, or rebel against his parents,instead, he or she understoodthat the best ways were the old ways and that the greatest wisdom in life came from passing on the way of his tribelet, elders, and Coyote.Ohlone people did not want their children to grow up as independent, unique people. Freedom and individualism were unimaginable ideas. To achieve freedom was to become weakened, damaged, and greatly vulnerable. Children were raised to be obedient, moderate, and cooperate (Margolin72-73).
Pregnancy and Early Years
Pregnancy was a very important time for an Ohlone woman and her entire tribe. There were many beliefs, rituals, traditions, and taboos surrounding pregnancy and it was a time of great vulnerability for all.Strict dietary rules applied not only to the woman, but also to the man. No meat, fish, or salt could be consumed by the wife in order to not have a large baby and a difficult childbirth (Margolin67). The husband was excluded from consuming meat, salt, and tobacco. Behavior was carefully regarded as well. Both the man and wife were to be especially aware of treating people and animals with respect. Even the man’s hunting duties were relieved during this time. The woman was instructed not to scratch any itches she might have on her belly for it would make her wrinkled and ugly.Another taboo was the restriction of using an awl in basketmaking for the poking of it could make the baby blind. Following the proper way during pregnancy was so important because a deformed baby, or even twins, were considered to have evil powers and were killed (Margolin67).
The day a woman went into labor brought the help and support of the village women (Margolin 68-69). A midwife was considered to have extraordinary powers and could employ them should difficulties arise. She turned to the powers of her sacred medicine bundle during this time. It was important that none of the other women looked directly at this bundle and caught a glimpse of its contents. One item that it likely containedwas a bear claw, which when rubbed over the woman’s belly and legs, gave her great strength with which to push out the baby (Margolin69-70). It was very important that after the birth, the umbilical cord be taken, burned, and disposed of properly so that no harm would come to mother and baby. Both also washed in a cold stream after birth according to tradition (Margolin70).
The husband made a fragrant and soft mattress of herbs laid over warm coals where mother and baby rested for the next week (Margolin70). After the first week, the baby was settled into a cradle which relatives lovingly made and decorated with beads and feathers (Margolin71-72). It was here, swaddled tightly in rabbit skin, that the baby spent the first two years of its life listening and observing the Ohlone way (71-72). It was important for the mother to maintain her diet and have no physical contact with her husband while the child was still nursing (71). It was believed doing so spoiled the mother’s milk (Margolin18).
Childhood
The child was weaned and released from the cradle by the age of two and quickly learned to walk, run, and play with other boys and girls (Margolin73). By age six the child was expected to contribute to the efforts of the family in any way possible such as picking berries or helping siblings carry home the day’s catch (74). By age seven or eight, the child had already accumulated vast knowledge of plants and animals as well as an understanding of the duties and expectations of family and community (74). The child obtained a solid mindset that there was only one Ohlone way (74). Boys and girls were also separated around this age in order to spend more time with their elders learning their gender roles (74).
Puberty into Adulthood
The transition of a boy into a man was a gradual process (Margolin74). Boys spent their time in the company of the men learning how to hunt, fish and craft stone and wood. Much time was spent in the sweathouse and through his learnings and participation with elders, the boy eventually became a man (74).
Girls similarly spent time with their female elders. They gathered plants and learned songs and the complex skill of basket making (Margolin75). They received tattoos which were mostly decorative except for the lines and dots on the face which were marks of tribelet and lineage and would tell prospective men if they were of compatible lineage (76). In contrast to the gradual adolescent process of boys, girls specifically, and rather abruptly, became a woman at the completion of her first menstruation (75). Menstruation was a time filled with significant beliefs and rituals like so many aspects of Ohlone life and it was believed that how a girl acted during this time would affect her for the rest of her life (75).
The girl at the onset of menstruation was forced to reside in a corner of her dwelling and in some cases, a separate hut built specifically for the occasion (Margolin75). Her use of cold water was considered taboo as well as consuming meat, fish, and salt. She was also obligated to take ritualistic baths. The women of the village counseled her on proper behavior during this time and questioned any dreams she may have had. Members of her family performed sacred dances and songs. When not visited by family, she was left alone with her own feelings of fear and confusion but had to try to behave and think as properly as possible (75). She may have entered the hut as a girl, but by the end, she most certainlyimmerged a woman (75-76). Dressed in beads and fine feathers, she was now treated as an equal amongst the other women and a feast in her honor celebrated her new role (Margolin76).
Marriage
Marriage in Ohlone society was highly valued although customs surrounding it were informal and relaxed (Margolin83). The process beganlike most marriages with two people falling in love. The male then made a request of the girl’s family for an approval of their marriage (78-79). If a positive decision was reached, the man’s family then offered gifts to her family such as baskets, beads, featherwork, and furs. The quality of these gifts were associated with the quality of life the woman could expect in her new marriage. Preparation and feasting lasted for days after which the couple went to live with the bride’s family for the first few months in order for the groom to prove himself hardworking, honest, and skillful to the bride’s family (81). It was important that he abide by the taboos such as not making eye contact with her parents and speaking to them in third person but only out of necessity. Even doing this caused great shame and embarrassment (81). After this trial period, the newlyweds went to live with the groom’s family (83).
The Ohlone were very selective of their marriage partner and strict criteria needed to be met. The partner could not be a member of their own family which meant that men from small villages had the difficult task of trying to meet women at local dances or trading events (Margolin 86-88). Blood was not the only consideration, however. A man was also expected to marry from his outside his clan as well as his moiety. If he was a bear, he must marry a deer. These restrictions posed serious challanges to finding a mate. The man would have to form relationships with neighboring tribelets although there was constant tension between them (Margolin 87-88).
The values the Ohlone placed on marriage are not dissimilar to those of modern day societies. Fidelity was expected although their commitment might be tested at times (Margolin83, 85-86). Infidelity was often handled with violence and reprimand. Despite marital issues, every attempt was made to keep couples together. If one became lazy or unfaithful in the relationship, pressure was felt from both families to make improvements (83). As a last resort, divorce was acceptable although it made both parties less attractive to future mates. In the event of a divorce, the children would live with the mother (Levy 490).
Sex and Sexuality
The Ohlone, like most California Native Americans at the time, held beliefs about the time and conditions under which one can have sex. They believed love making robbed one’s spiritual energy and that too much indulgence would leave a person unfit for rigorous spiritual activity (Margolin85). Therefore, sex was abstained from when preparing for any event of spiritual importance such as a dance or ceremony. It was also taboo to have sex when a woman was menstruating, nursing, or before a man was getting ready to hunt deer (85). Practicing abstinence while nursing practically meant that a woman’s children would be spaced out at advantageous intervals. The high infant mortality rate and the performance of abortions (which the women knew how to induce) played a role in birth control and therefore, in population control (Margolin85).
Homosexuality was accepted and the people had a flexible understanding of it (MargolinThe 84). It was not as prevalent in Ohlone society as in the Chumash who were likely to have three homosexual couples living within one large village. However, it was still common. There were known cases documented by Spanish explorers of two men living together in the same hut, one of which who chose to dress like a woman and followed a woman’s role. Some boys followed the same path as girls as they grew up and even got married to men just the same. It was also acceptable for women to be homosexual but only practically speaking as they were not allowed to adopt male roles (Margolin84).
Death Customs
Just as wefeel anguish and pain with the loss of a loved one, the Ohlone experienced tremendous grief and sadness with the death of a village member as each person had a special place in the community(Margolin145). Even before the loved one actually passed away, family and villagers were grief stricken knowing that the death was inevitable (145). The village shaman was involved in the dying process, having received gifts from the family to help make a cure. Oncethe shaman’s curing ceremonies became futile, some of the beads and skins given by the family were returned (145).
The corpse was buried or cremated on the day of death (Levy 490). In the San Francisco Bay area, cremation was common especially amongst the Chochenyo and Ramaytush unless there existed no kin to gather the necessary firewood, in which case a burial occurred instead (Levy 490). The Chalon and Rumsentribelets of the Monterey Bay area were known to bury their dead (Levy 490). Cremation was reserved only for those of power such as chiefs, shamans, and warriors (Margolin147).
Despite overwhelminggrief, proper ceremonies had to be performed. If not, it was believed the ghost of the deceased would be angry (Margolin145). At the time of death, messengers were sent to the surrounding villages to gather people to join in the mourning ceremonies. In preparation of cremation, family and friends gathered the necessary firewood for the funeral pyre. Others prepared the corpse by adorning it with feathers, flowers, and beads. The body was tied in a flexed position with knees tucked under the chin and hands on the cheeks. It was also important that every material possession of the deceased be collected and burned or buried with the body (Levy 491). All possessions including one’s bow, arrows, blankets, dance regalia, and even one’s hut needed to be destroyed (145). This tradition stemmed from the fear that the “ghost” of the dead would be drawn not only to family and friends, but also to its old dwelling and belongings (Margolin147). The guests also threw their valued beads, baskets, and featherworks on the pyre to offer as gifts to the dead. “All the guests mourned piteously, stopping their wailing to dance periodically around the pyre with a slow, measured tread, then resuming the wailing once again” (147).
The Ohlone like most California Indians of the time had a great fear of ghosts. “At the time of a death, figures from the spirit world mixed closely with the villagers. These were dangerous times: the people, especially the widow, were extremely vulnerable” (Margolin145).Although the body no longer existed, the soul still did, and it was greatly feared that the ghost would hang around and cause damage instead of journeying to the land of the dead. This is illustrated in a Yokut funeral chant which goes: “You are going where you are going: Don’t look back for your family” (MargolinThe 148).
It was believed that after death, the soul travels to the land of the dead as described in this Chochenyo narrative: “The Chochenyo journey to the land of the dead includes a stop to drink water and eat panocha (native sugar). A road leads to a sea foam which the dead pass through. The Chumash soul’s journey to the land of the dead, although different in some ways, includes a road and several stopping points” (The Ohlone Past 140). It was believed the deceased would be greeted at the island of the dead and that there he/she would eat, dance, and sing with the other spirits (Margolin147).
The widow of an Ohlone man was especially affected by the death of her husband. She expressed her overwhelming sense of sadness and grief with shrill wailing and screaming, and beat herself on the breasts with a pestle (Levy 491). She also tore at her face and breasts with her fingernails until her skin bled (Margolin147). The widow was regarded as being the most vulnerable to the ghost of her husband (Margolin148). She was seen as a potential conduit for evil powers because of her closeness with him.In order to make herself unrecognizable and unattractive to her husband’s ghost, the widow singed her hair with live coals or cut it off with a knife and smeared ashes on her face (Levy 490-491). The period of danger lasted from 6 months to a year during which she lived in confinement from the other villagers who sought to avoid her (148). They were also fearful to dream of the deceased as a dream of the dead was the same as being visited by their ghost (148). An annual mourning ceremony was held to remember members of the village who had died that year and dances and feasts were held in their honor (Levy 491). It was only after the passing of a year that life returned to normal for the widow and that she could grow her hair and marry once again (Margolin148).