Mediterranean Society: the Roman Phase

Chapter 11:

Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase

Themes

Beware the temptation to dwell too much in the details. For world history purposes, the Romans were indeed a “phase” of the Mediterranean classical societies, and should be taught and discussed the same way that the classical Persian, Indian, and Chinese empires were taught. Students need to pick up the similarities as well as identify a distinguishing characteristic or two about each of these classical societies.

The political themes are easy to identify: the definitions of and the explanations for progression (or regression?) from republic, to kingdom, to empire. The imperial period is the one to emphasize. Administrative centralization, public works projects, military expenditures, and heavy taxation were key features of Roman government. The theme of territorial conquest by establishing colonies (something the Greeks did earlier), integrating newcomers, and outright military aggression weaves together many other stories in Roman history. The Roman economy expanded and specialized as the government gained control of the whole Mediterranean basin by the reign of Augustus, and the resultant two centuries of the pax romana facilitated both imperial and international trade.

The social structure of imperial Roman society needs explanation, since two of its distinguishing characteristics are its complexity and its inequalities**. Like other classical societies, Roman society was patriarchal and relied heavily on slaves. The increasingly wealthy entrepreneurs challenged the old nobility for status, while the populations of urban poor became increasingly problematic. Small farmers were increasingly marginalized as the large latifundia, with their specialized agricultural production, absorbed their lands and monopolized production. This complex, cosmopolitan empire was held together by Roman laws, language (Latin), the Roman military, economic ties, and the worship of Roman gods and the emperors. The rise of the Jewish sect led by Jesus of Nazareth, soon to be called Christianity, needs to be explained as part of both Jewish and Roman history.

Chapter 11 ends before the division of the empire into two administrative halves, and does not include the discussion of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Assign students the section of Ch. 12 that discusses the division of the empire and the eventual collapse of the western Roman empire due to external invasions and internal problems.

Chapter 11 Reading Questions:

1. What contributions did the Etruscans and the early Roman monarchy make to the Roman republic?The Etruscans built thriving cities and established political and economic alliances between their settlements. They manufactured high-quality bronze and iron goods, and they worked gold and silver into jewelry. They built a fleet and traded actively in the western Mediterranean. Several of the kings in the roman monarchy were Etruscans. The kings provided the city with paved streets, public buildings, defensive walls, and large temples.
2. How did the republican constitution set the stage for conflict between the patricians and the plebeians?The republic constitution entrusted executive responsibilities to two consuls who wielded civil and military power. Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated by hereditary aristocrats and wealthy classes, known in Rome as the patricians, and they served one-year terms. The senate, whose members were mostly aristocrats with extensive political experience, advised the consuls and ratified all major decisions. Because the consuls and the senate both represented the interests of the patricians, there was constant tension between the wealthy classes and the common people, known as the plebeians.
3. What was the significance of the Punic Wars to the later development of Rome?It brought imperial expansion which brought wealth and power, but it also led to unequal distribution of wealth and gave rise to conflict over political and social policies. Plus, the need to administer conquered lands efficiently strained the capacities of the republican constitution.
4. In general, how did the Romans deal with the people and lands that they conquered?The Romans established military colonies in the regions they overcame and had a generous policy toward the peoples they conquered. Instead of ruling them as vanquished subjects, the Romans often exempted them from taxation and allowed them to govern their own internal affairs. Conquered peoples in Italy enjoyed the right to trade in Rome and take Roman spouses. Some gained Roman citizenship and rose to high positions in Roman society. The Romans forbade conquered people from making military or political alliances except with Rome itself and required them to provide soldiers and military support .
5. What inherent weaknesses in the political and economic institutions of Rome did the Gracchi brothers' conflicts highlight?The Gracchi brothers had problems with land distribution and tried to work to limit the amount of conquered land that any individual could hold, but they had little kitsuccess. The experience of the Gracchi brothers clearly showed that the constitution of the roman republic, originally designed for a small city state, was not suitable for a large and growing empire.
6. Describe the transition from republic to empire in the 1st century B.C.E.During the early 1st century rome fell into a civil war and was placed under military occupation. Marios died and Sulla took power. Sulla killed 10,000 people but did address land problems. Giaus took power and created a centralized imperial power. Then Octavion (Augustus) took control.
7. How did the Romans promote trade throughout the empire?Pax Roman facilitated trade and communication. The Romans integrated their empire by building networks of transportation and communication. Roman engineers created highly sophisticated roads. Roads linked all parts of the Roman Empire. Owners of latifundia concentrated on production for export. Specialized production of agricultural commodities and manufactured goods set the stage for vigorous trade. The Roman Empire also used sea lanes for trading.
8. What was the status of women during the empire?Roman law vested immense authority in male heads of families.Usually the eldest male ruled the household as pater familias. Roman law gave the pater familias the authority to arrange marriage for his children, determine the work they would perform, and punish them when he saw fit. He had the right to sell them into slavery or execute them. Woman usually supervised domestic affairs in Roman households, and by the time they reached middle age they generally had considerable influence. They helped select marriage partners for their children, and sometimes played large roles in managing their families’ financial affairs.
9. How did Jesus' message threaten the Roman administration? How did they respond?To Jesus, the kingdom of God was a spiritual realm in which God would gather those faithful to him. To Roman Administrators, however, his message carried political overtones: an impending kingdom of God sounded like a threat to Roman rule in Palestine, especially since enthusiastic crowds routinely accompanied Jesus. In an effort to forestall a new round of rebellion, Roman administrators executed Jesus by fixing him to a cross.
10. What was the appeal of the early Christian teachings? What sorts of people were most attracted to it?The faith appealed to the lower classes, urban population, and women. Christianity accorded honor and dignity to individuals who did not enjoy high standing in Roman society, and it endowed them with a sense of spiritual freedom more meaningful than wealth, power, or social prominence. Christianity taught the spiritual equality of the sexes and welcomed both men and women. Christianity provided a sense of purpose and promise of future glory for those who placed their faith in Jesus.

Historical Terms and Concepts to Know

Paul of Tarsus / Republic
Po River / Tiber River
senate / consuls
patricians / plebeians
*tribunes / dictator
Gaul / Celtics
Carthage / Punic Wars
latifundium/-ia / Julius Caesar
Octavian Augustus / Marc Antony
Cleopatra / pax romana
mare nostrum / Colosseum
pater familias / bread and circuses
Jesus of Nazareth

From Chapter 12

Diocletian / Constantine
Constantinople / Visigoths
Western and eastern Roman empires / Huns
Attila / 476 C.E.
St. Augustine / Bishop of Rome

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