Making Sense of the Social World, Fifth Edition

Making Sense of the Social World, Fifth Edition

Pub Date: 1/20/2015

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – SIDE BY SIDE COMPARISON

FOURTH EDITION / FIFTH EDITION
About the Authors xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvi
1. Science, Society, and Social Research 1
Learning about the Social World 2
Overgeneralization 4
Selective or Inaccurate Observation 5
Illogical Reasoning 6
Resistance to Change 6
Can Social Scientists See the Social World More Clearly? 6
Social Research in Practice 7
Description: How Often Do Americans “Neighbor”? 7
Exploration: How Do Athletic Teams Build Player Loyalty? 7
Research in the News: Twitter Users Flock Together 9
Explanation: Does Social Context Influence Adolescent
Outcomes? 9
Evaluation: Does More Social Capital Result in More Community Participation? 9
How Well Have We Done Our Research? 10
Measurement Validity 10
Generalizability 11
Causal Validity 11
Conclusion 13
■■ Key Terms 15
■■ Highlight s 15
■■ Exercises 15
Discussing Research 15
Finding Research 16
Critiquing Research 16
Doing Research 16
Ethics Questions 16
2. The Process and Problems of Social Research 17
What Is the Question? 18
What Is the Theory? 19
What Is the Strategy? 20
Research in the News: Investigating Child Abuse Doesn’t Reduce It 21
Deductive Research 21
Domestic Violence and the Research Circle 22
Inductive Research 23
An Inductive Study of Response to a Disaster 24
Descriptive Research: A Necessary Step 24
What Is the Design? 25
Cross-Sectional Designs 25
Longitudinal Designs 26
Trend Designs 27
Panel Designs 28
Cohort Designs 28
Units and Levels of Analysis 29
But Is It Ethical? 32
Honesty and Openness 32
The Uses of Science 33
Research on People 33
Conclusion 34
■■ Key Terms 35
■■ Highlight s 35
■■ Exercises 36
Discussing Research 36
Finding Research 36
Critiquing Research 37
Doing Research 37
Ethics Questions 38
3. Ethics in Research 39
Historical Background 42
Ethical Principles 43
Protecting Research Subjects 44
Avoid Harming Research Participants 44
Obtain Informed Consent 46
Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances 51
Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality 52
Maintaining Honesty and Openness 53
Research in the News: Honesty in Research 53
Achieving Valid Results 54
Encouraging Appropriate Application 55
Conclusion 56
■■ Key Terms 56
■■ Highlight s 56
■■ Exercises 57
Discussing Research 57
Finding Research 57
Critiquing Research 57
Doing Research 58
Ethics Questions 58
4. Conceptualization and Measurement 59
What Do We Have in Mind? 60
Conceptualization 60
Research in the News: How Poverty Is Measured Matters 62
Variables and Constants 62
How Will We Know When We’ve Found It? 63
Using Available Data 64
Content Analysis 65
Constructing Questions 66
Single Questions 66
Indexes and Scales 67
Making Observations 68
Collecting Unobtrusive Measures 69
Combining Measurement Operations 70
How Much Information Do We Really Have? 71
Nominal Level of Measurement 71
Ordinal Level of Measurement 72
Interval Level of Measurement 73
Ratio Level of Measurement 74
Comparison of Levels of Measurement 74
Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure? 75
Measurement Validity 75
Face Validity 75
Content Validity 76
Criterion Validity 76
Construct Validity 76
Reliability 77
Test-Retest Reliability 78
Interitem Reliability (Internal Consistency) 78
Alternate-Forms Reliability 78
Interobserver Reliability 78
Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity? 79
Conclusion 79
■■ Key Terms 80
■■ Highlight s 81
■■ Exercises 81
Discussing Research 81
Finding Research 82
Critiquing Research 82
Doing Research 82
Ethics Questions 84
5. Sampling 85
How Do We Prepare to Sample? 86
Define Sample Components and the Population 86
Evaluate Generalizability 88
Assess the Diversity of the Population 88
Consider a Census 89
What Sampling Method Should We Use? 90
Probability Sampling Methods 90
Research in the News: Sample Polls Indicate Latino Turnout Likely to Lag 91
Simple Random Sampling 92
Systematic Random Sampling 93
Cluster Sampling 93
Stratified Random Sampling 95
Nonprobability Sampling Methods 96
Availability Sampling 97
Quota Sampling 97
Purposive Sampling 97
Snowball Sampling 99
Conclusion 99
■■ Key Terms 99
■■ Highlight s 100
■■ Exercises 100
Discussing Research 100
Finding Research 101
Critiquing Research 101
Doing Research 101
Ethics Questions 102
6. Causation and Experimental Design 103
Causal Explanation 104
What Causes What? 104
Research in the News: The Effects of Police Reform? 105
Association 105
Time Order 105
Nonspuriousness 105
Mechanism 106
Context 107
Why Experiment? 107
What If a True Experiment Isn’t Possible? 109
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 112
Before-and-After Designs 112
Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs 114
What Are the Threats to Validity in Experiments? 114
Threats to Internal (Causal) Validity 114
Noncomparable Groups 115
Endogenous Change 116
History 117
Contamination 117
Treatment Misidentification 118
Generalizability 119
Sample Generalizability 119
Cross-Population Generalizability 120
Interaction of Testing and Treatment 121
How Do Experimenters Protect Their Subjects? 121
Deception 122
Selective Distribution of Benefits 123
Conclusion 123
■■ Key Terms 124
■■ Highlight s 124
■■ Exercises 125
Discussing Research 125
Finding Research 126
Critiquing Research 126
Doing Research 126
Ethics Questions 127
7. Survey Research 128
Why Is Survey Research So Popular? 129
Research in the News: Poll-Driven Politicians 129
How Should We Write Survey Questions? 130
Be Clear; Avoid Confusing Phrasing 130
Minimize Bias 131
Allow for Disagreement 131
Don’t Ask Questions They Can’t Answer 131
Allow for Uncertainty 132
Make Response Categories Exhaustive and Mutually Exclusive 133
How Should Questionnaires Be Designed? 133
Build on Existing Instruments 133
Refine and Test Questions 134
Maintain Consistent Focus 134
Order the Questions 135
Make the Questionnaire Attractive 135
What Are the Alternatives for Administering Surveys? 135
Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys 137
Group-Administered Surveys 137
Telephone Surveys 138
Reaching Sampling Units 139
In-Person Interviews 141
Interviewing Online 142
Maximizing Response to Interviews 142
Electronic Surveys 142
A Comparison of Survey Designs 147
Ethical Issues in Survey Research 147
Conclusion 149
■■ Key Terms 150
■■ Highlight s 150
■■ Exercises 151
Discussing Research 151
Finding Research 151
Critiquing Research 151
Doing Research 153
Ethics Questions 153
8. Elementary Quantitative Data Analysis 154
Why Do Statistics? 155
Case Study: The Likelihood of Voting 155
How to Prepare Data for Analysis 155
What Are the Options for Displaying Distributions? 156
Graphs 158
Frequency Distributions 161
What Are the Options for Summarizing Distributions? 162
Research in the News: General Social Survey Shows Infidelity on the Rise 162
Measures of Central Tendency 164
Mode 164
Median 164
Mean 164
Median or Mean? 165
Measures of Variation 165
Range 166
Interquartile Range 167
Variance 167
Standard Deviation 167
How Can We Tell Whether Two Variables Are Related? 168
Reading the Table 169
Controlling for a Third Variable 172
Analyzing Data Ethically: How Not to Lie With Statistics 172
Conclusion 174
■■ Key Terms 174
■■ Highlight s 175
■■ Exercises 175
Discussing Research 175
Finding Research 176
Critiquing Research 176
Doing Research 176
Ethics Questions 177
9. Qualitative Methods: Observing, Participating, Listening 178
What Are Qualitative Methods? 179
Case Study: Beyond Caring 180
Ethnography 181
Netnography 182
Research in the News: Readers’ Online Feedback Can Be Vicious 183
Ethnomethodology 183
How Does Participant Observation Become a Research Method? 184
Choosing a Role 184
Complete Observation 184
Mixed Participation or Observation 185
Complete Participation 186
Entering the Field 187
Developing and Maintaining Relationships 187
Sampling People and Events 188
Taking Notes 190
Managing the Personal Dimensions 192
Systematic Observation 192
How Do You Conduct Intensive Interviews? 195
Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership 196
Asking Questions and Recording Answers 197
How Do You Run Focus Groups? 198
Analyzing Qualitative Data 199
The Phases of Analysis 200
Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 200
Conclusion 201
■■ Key Terms 202
■■ Highlight s 202
■■ Exercises 203
Discussing Research 203
Finding Research 203
Critiquing Research 204
Doing Research 204
Ethics Questions 204
10. Qualitative Data Analysis 205
What Is Distinctive About Qualitative Data Analysis? 206
Qualitative Data Analysis as an Art 208
Qualitative Compared to Quantitative Data Analysis 208
What Techniques Do Qualitative Data Analysts Use? 209
Documentation 210
Conceptualization, Coding, and Categorizing 210
Examining Relationships and Displaying Data 212
Authenticating Conclusions 215
Reflexivity 216
What Are Some Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis? 217
Narrative Analysis 217
Conversation Analysis 219
Grounded Theory 220
Mixed Methods 221
Combining Qualitative Methods 221
Combining Qualitative and
Quantitative Methods 222
Case Study: Juvenile Court
Records 222
Case Study: Mental Health System 222
Case Study: Housing Loss in Group
Homes 223
Historical and Comparative Methods 223
Visual Sociology 225
Research in the News: Taping and Analyzing
Family Life 227
How Can Computers Assist Qualitative Data
Analysis? 228
What Ethical Issues Arise in Doing Qualitative
Data Analysis? 231
Conclusion 231
■■ Key Terms 232
■■ Highlight s 232
■■ Exercises 232
Discussing Research 232
Finding Research 233
Critiquing Research 233
Doing Research 233
Ethics Questions 233
11. Evaluation Research 234 *Moved to CH 12
What Is the History of Evaluation Research? 235
What Is Evaluation Research? 236
What Are the Alternatives in Evaluation Designs? 238
Black Box or Program Theory 238
Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation 239
Quantitative or Qualitative Methods 241
Simple or Complex Outcomes 242
What Can an Evaluation Study Focus On? 244
Needs Assessment 244
Research in the News: Predicting Criminal Propensity 244
Evaluability Assessment 245
Process Evaluation 246
Impact Analysis 250
Efficiency Analysis 252
Ethical Issues in Evaluation Research 254
Conclusion 255
■■ Key Terms 256
■■ Highlight s 256
■■ Exercises 257
Discussing Research 257
Finding Research 257
Critiquing Research 257
Doing Research 257
Ethics Questions 257
12. Reviewing, Proposing, and Reporting Research 258 *Moved to CH 13
Comparing Research Designs 259
Reviewing Research 260
Case Study: “Night as Frontier” 261
The Research Design 261
Analysis of the Design 262
An Overall Assessment 262
Case Study: When Does Arrest Matter? 262
Summarize Prior Research 263
Critique Prior Research 263
Present Pertinent Conclusions 264
Proposing New Research 264
Case Study: Community Health Workers and Cancer Clinical Trials 265
Reporting Research 272
Research in the News: Lawsuit Threatened Over Scholarly Article 272
Writing and Organizing 272
Conclusion 277
■■ Highlight s 278
■■ Exercises 278
Discussing Research 278
Finding Research 278
Critiquing Research 279
Doing Research 279
Ethics Questions 279
Glossary 280 / About the Authors xii
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvi
Chapter 1: Science, Society, and Social Research 1
Learning About the Social World 2
Overgeneralization 5
Selective or Inaccurate Observation 5
Illogical Reasoning 5
Resistance to Change 6
Research That Matters 7
Can Social Scientists See the Social World More Clearly? 7
Social Research in Practice 7
Description: How Often Do Americans “Neighbor”? 8
Exploration: How Do Athletic Teams Build Player Loyalty? 8
Research in the News: Why Doesn’t the Internet Reach Everyone? 9
Explanation: Does Social Context Influence Adolescent Outcomes? 10
Evaluation: Does More Social Capital Result in More Community Participation? 10
Careers and Research: Jessica LeBlanc, Research Assistant 11
How Well Have We Done Our Research? 11
Measurement Validity 12
Generalizability 12
Causal Validity 12
Conclusion 14
■ Key Terms 16
■ Highlights 16
■ Student Study Site 16
■ Exercises 17
Chapter 2: The Process and Problems of Social Research 21
What Is the Question? 22
What Is the Theory? 23
What Is the Strategy? 24
Deductive Research 24
Research in the News: Investigating Child Abuse Doesn’t Reduce It 25
Domestic Violence and the Research Circle 26
Inductive Research 26
Research That Matters 27
An Inductive Study of Response to a Disaster 28
Descriptive Research: A Necessary Step 28
What Is the Design? 28
Cross-Sectional Designs 29
Longitudinal Designs 29
Trend Designs 31
Panel Designs 32
Cohort Designs 32
Units and Levels of Analysis 33
Careers and Research: Russell Schutt, PhD 36
Conclusion 37
■ Key Terms 37
■ Highlights 37
■ Student Study Site 38
■ Exercises 38
Chapter 3: Ethics in Research 43
Historical Background 46
Ethical Principles 47
Protecting Research Subjects 48
Avoid Harming Research Participants 48
Obtain Informed Consent 51
Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances 55
Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality 56
Research That Matters 57
Maintaining Honesty and Openness 57
Research in the News: What Would an IRB Say? 58
Achieving Valid Results 59
Careers and Research: Kristen Kenny, Research Compliance Specialist 60