Key Vocabulary for Earth Science by SOL Number

Key Vocabulary for Earth Science by SOL Number

ES02: The Nature of Science

Analysis

Constant

Control

Control Group

Experiment

Experimental Group

Graphing Relationships: Direct (Positive), Indirect (Negative, Inverse), No Relationship

Graphs: Bar, Circle, Histogram, Line, Scatter-Plot

Hypothesis

Independent versus Dependent Variable

Inference

Law

Metric System

Observation

Scientific Method

Theory

ES01: Maps and Remote Sensing

Basic Mapping Skills:

Arctic/Antarctic Circles

Equator

International Date Line

Latitude

Longitude

Map Key

Map Legend

Map Projections: Mercator, Conic, Gnomonic

Map Scale: Verbal, Fractional, Graphical

Map Types: Bathymetric, Geologic, Hydrologic, Physical, Political, Thematic, Topographic

North/South Pole

Polaris (North Star)

Prime Meridian

Time Zone

Tropics of Cancer/Capricorn

Topographic Maps:

Contour interval

Contour Line

Hachure

Index Contour

Slope/Gradient

Topographic Map

Topographic Profile

Remote Sensing:

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Remote Sensing

Satellite Imagery

Sonar

Wavelength

Layers of Earth: Crust, Upper Mantle, Lower Mantle, Outer Core, Inner Core

ES04: Minerals

Crystal

Crystal System: Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, Triclinic, Hexagonal

Gemstone

Mineral

Minerals (Common): Feldspar, Quartz, Pyrite, Mica, Halite, Gypsum

Mineral Composition: Carbonate, Halide, Hydroxide, Native Element, Oxide,

Silicate, Sulfate, Sulfide

Mineral Properties: Cleavage, Color, Fracture, Hardness, Luster, Streak

Unique Properties: Chemical Reactivity, Double Internal Refraction, Fluorescence,

Magnetism, Odor, Phosphorescence

Ore

Mineral Ores: Bauxite (Al), Sphalerite (Zn), Hematite (Fe), Magnetite (Fe), Galena (Pb)

Silica Tetrahedron

ES05 Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Bowen’s Reaction Series: Continuous and Discontinuous Reaction Series

Continuous Series Minerals: Plagioclase Feldspars: Calcium- and Sodium-Feldspars

Discontinuous Series Minerals: Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Biotite Mica

High Silica Minerals: Orthoclase Feldspars: Potassium- and Aluminum-Feldspars,

Muscovite Mica, Quartz

Extrusive (volcanic) Igneous Rocks

Intrusive (plutonic) Igneous Rocks

Fractional Crystallization

Partial Melting

Igneous Rocks (Common Representatives):

Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultra-Mafic

Intrusive: Granite Diorite Gabbro, Peridotite/Dunite

Extrusive: Rhyolite Andesite Basalt

Glassy: Obsidian Obsidian Scoria

Pumice Pumice

Igneous Rock Composition: Felsic, Intermediate, Mafic, Ultra-Mafic

Igneous Rock Textures: very-coarse grained (Pegmatitic), coarse-grained (Phaneritic),

Fine-grained (Aphanitic), dual-grained (Porphyritic), glassy (Amorphous)

Magma Composition: Rhyolitic, Andesitic, Basaltic

Phenocryst

Vesicular

Sedimentary Rocks

Clast Size: Gravels (Boulders, Cobbles, Pebbles, Granules) > Sands > Silts > Clays

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Conglomerate/Breccia, Sandstone, Siltstone/Mudstone,

Claystone/Shale

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Limestone (CaCO3), Rock Gypsum (CaSO4), Rock Salt (NaCl)

Organic Sedimentary Rocks: Limestone (Chalk, Coquina, Fossiliferous), Coal

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks: Weathering, Erosion, Deposition, Burial,

Lithification (compaction and cementation)

Sedimentary Rock Features: Bedding, Cross-Bedding, Graded Bedding, Fossils,

Ripple-Marks, Sorting

Metamorphic Rocks

Factors Affecting Metamorphism: Temperature and Pressure

Metamorphism

Metamorphic Grade: Low, Medium, High

Metamorphism Types: Regional (pressure due to Tectonic activity),

Contact/Thermal (high temperature due to magmatic intrusions),

Hydrothermal (loss or addition of minerals to native rocks due the

activity of very hot water)

Metamorphic Rock Types: Foliated, Banded, Non-Foliated

Metamorphic Rocks (common with parent rock): f=foliated, n=non-foliate, b=banded

Parent Metamorphic Product(s)

ShaleSlate (f) -> Phyllite (f) -> Schist (f) -> Gneiss (b)

Limestone Marble (n)

Sandstone Quartzite (n)

Granite Granitic Schist (f) -> Granitic Gneiss (b)

Porphyroblast

ES06: Natural Resources

Renewable Resource

Non-Renewable Resource

Fossil Fuels: Coal, Natural Gas, Petroleum

Advantages: high energy density, relatively cheap (currently)

Disadvantage: environmental damage during extraction,

pollution released when burned,

release CO2, a greenhouse gas, when burned

Alternative Energy Resources (Advantages and Disadvantages)

Solar Power

Wind Power

Hydroelectric

Biomass

Geothermal

Nuclear Power

Conservation

Reduce

Recycle

Reuse

Virginia’s Natural Resources: Coal, Natural Gas, Aggregate, other construction material, etc.

ES07: Plate Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanoes

Plate Tectonics:

Continental Drift Hypothesis

Proposed by: Alfred Wegener

Main Idea:Approximately 200 million years ago all of Earth’s continents were part

of a super-continent called Pangaea. Over the intervening 200 my

period, Pangaea, broke apart and the continents drifted to their present

locations by plowing their way through the bedrock of the seafloor.

Supported by: Complementary continental outlines;

Fossils of identical terrestrial plant and animal species can be found on

now widely separated continents;

Stratigraphy and structural geology of the continental rocks and

mountain systems;

Paleoclimatic Data -Evidence of major climate shifts over time

Problems:No plausible mechanism for the drifting of continents could be found

Seafloor Spreading

Proposed by:Harry Hess, et al

Main Idea: New oceanic crust is produced at mid-ocean ridges by the extrusion of

basaltic magma. The warmer, less dense, newly formed crust forces the

older denser crust up and outwards away from the MOR. When the

older, denser crust encounters younger, less dense, oceanic crust, or the

much less dense continental crust, it is force beneath the less dense

crust in a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be

marked at the surface by the presence of a deep-sea trench. The

subducted plate is then partially melted and recycled by the heat of the

earth’s interior.

Supported by:The presence of the Mid-Ocean Ridge system;

Symmetrical pattern of magnetic reversals about the MOR;

Continental crust is ~20 times older than the oldest oceanic crust;

The presence of deep-sea trenches at active continental margins;

Seafloor sediment increases in depth as you move away from the MOR;

The age of ocean crust increases as you move away from the MOR

Theory of Plate Tectonics

Proposed by: Plate Tectonic Theory is a synthesis of the Continental Drift Hypothesis and the mechanism of Seafloor Spreading.

Main Idea:The Earth’s lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is broken into twelve

major and several minor plates. The lithospheric plates “float” and move independently on a semi-molten part of the lower mantle called the asthenosphere.

Mechanisms:Convection currents in the asthenosphere

Ridge Push

Slab Pull

Plate Boundary Interactions

Convergent: Oceanic-Oceanic, Continental-Continental, Oceanic-Continental

Divergent: Oceanic, Continental

Transform

Plate Boundary Features( w/associated boundary type): c= continental o= oceanic

Folded Mountains (c-c convergent) ex. Himalaya Mountains

Rift Zones (divergent)

Mid-Ocean Ridge (oceanic divergent) ex. Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise

Rift Valley (continental divergent) ex. Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa

Subduction Zone/Trench (c-o and o-o convergent) ex. Peru-Chile, Aleutian, Marianas

Volcanic Island Arc (o-o convergent) ex. Japanese, Aleutian, Philippine, Sumatran

Volcanic Mountain Range (c-o convergent) ex. Cascade and Andes Mountains

Earthquakes (all boundary types)

Additional Terms:

Asthenosphere

Convection Cells: Divergent/Convergent

Convection Current

Isochron

Lithosphere

Magnetometer

Paleomagnetism

Semi-molten

Earthquakes:

Forces within the Earth:

Stress: Compression, Tension, Shear

Strain: Elastic and Ductile Deformation

Results: Fracturing (Joints/Faults) and Folding (Anticline/Synclines/etc.)

Fault Type: Normal

Cause: Tension – Thinning of the crust

Movement: HW moves down relative to the FW

Feature: Rift Valleys and Fault Block Mountains

Associated: Divergent Boundaries

Fault Type: Reverse

Cause: Compression – Thickening of the crust

Movement: HW moves up relative to the FW

Feature: Over-thrust Mountains

Associated:Convergent Boundaries

Fault Type: Strike-Slip

Cause: Shear

Movement: Horizontal

Feature: Large Scale Faults (ex. San Andreas Fault)

Associated:Transform Boundaries

Locating an Earthquake Epicenter: Triangulation

Epicenter

Focus: may be deep, intermediate, or shallow in depth

Seismometer/Seismograph

Seismogram

Difference in Arrival Time (aka: lag-time, S-P interval, Tarrival)

S-P Travel-Time Plot

Epicentral Distance

Measuring Earthquakes:

Earthquake Magnitude = objective measurement of seismic energy released

during a seismic event compared to background;

measured on the Richter Scale: Based on powers of 32

Earthquake Intensity = Subjective determination of the amount of damage,

death, and destruction caused by a seismic event;

measured on the Modified Mercalli Scale (12 steps

represented by a roman numeral

Earthquake Hazards: Amplification, Liquifaction, Pancaking, Tsunami

Regions of High Seismic Activity: Circum-Pacific Belt and the Mediterranean-Asian Belt

Additional Terms:

Fault Plane

Fault Scarp

Foot Wall

Hanging Wall

Mohorovicic-Discontinuity (aka the “Moho”)

P-Wave Shadow Zone

Volcanoes:

Formation and Characteristics of Magma:

Magma

Magma Types: Rhyolitic, Andesitic, Basaltic

Magmatic Intrusions aka Plutons: Batholith, Dike, Laccolith, Sill, Stock

Lava

Volcanic Features:

Caldera

Cone

Crater

Fumarole

Vent

Volcano Type: Shield, Composite/Stratovolcano, Cinder-Cone, Fissure, Caldera (“super-”)

Volcanic Products:

Lava Flows

Gases

Tephra: Dust, Ash, Lapilli, Bombs, and Blocks

Volcanic Hazards:

Pyroclastic Flows

Lahars

Location of Volcanism:

Convergent Boundary Volcanism

Divergent Boundary Volcanism

Hot-Spot Volcanism

Additional Terms:

Atoll

Guyot

Magma Chamber

Pillow Basalts

Ring of Fire

Seamount

Volcanic Island Chain ex. Hawaiian Islands and the Emperor Seamounts

ES07a, 8a: Weathering, Erosion, Deposition, Mass Movement, Soils

Weathering

Types of Weathering:

Mechanical (Physical)

Abrasion (leads to rounding of sediments)

Frost Action

Root Pry

Exfoliation

Chemical

Oxidation

Hydrolysis

Acid Corrosion

Formation of Carbonic Acid

Reaction of Carbonic Acid with Calcite

Formation of Acid Rain

Erosion/Transportation

Agents of Erosion:

Running Water: See ES 8, Surface Water for details

Wind:

Saltation

Erosional Features: Ventifacts

Depositional Features: Dunes (ex. Barchan, Parabolic, Transverse, Longitudinal)

Wind Breaks

“The Dust Bowl”

Glaciers:

Formation of Glacial ice

Types of Glaciers: Alpine (aka Valley), Piedmont,

Continental (Ice sheets and caps)

Erosional Features: U-shaped Valleys, Lateral and Medial Moraine, Crevasse,

Arete, Horn, Cirque, Col

Depositional Features: Ground, End, and Terminal Moraine, Kettle, Kettle Lake,

Esker, Drumlin

Gravity: Cause of mass movements including glaciers

Competence: The largest sized sediment an agent can carry; determined by the kinetic energy

of the agent. For Wind and Water primarily determined by velocity, for glaciers

primarily determined by mass

Deposition: Occurs when the competence of an agent drops below the size of a particle the agent is

currently carrying.

Mass Movement:

Types of Mass Movement:

Creep

Flow: (includes mud-, debris-, and earth-)

Slip (includes slide and slump)

Fall

Avalanche

Soil:

Humus

A-Horizon/Topsoil

B-Horizon/Subsoil

C-Horizon/Partially Weathered Bedrock

D-Horizon/Parent Rock/Bedrock

Residual Soil

Soil Texture: determined using the percent of sand silt and clay

Soli Texture Diagram

Transported Soil

ES08b-f: Surface and Groundwater

Surface Water

Water (Hydrologic) Cycle: Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation,

Run-off, Infiltration, Transpiration

Drainage Basin/Watershed

Major Watersheds of Virginia: James, Rappahannock, York, Chowan, Roanoke/Staunton,

Clinch, Holsten, Shenandoah/Potomac

Drainage Patterns: Dendritic, Radial, Rectangular, Trellis, Braided

Stages of Stream Development: Young, Mature, Old

Types of Stream Erosion:

Down-Cutting

Lateral Cutting (Erosion)

Head-ward Erosion

Stream Piracy

Characteristics of Streams:

Alluvial Fan

Competence

Cut-Bank

Delta

Discharge

Meanders

Oxbow

Oxbow Lake

Point Bar Bank

Stream Head

Stream Load: Bed, Solution, Suspended

Stream Mouth

Stream Profile

Groundwater

Aquifers:

Aquiclude

Artesian Well

Confined Aquifer

Permeability

Porosity

Recharge

Recharge Zone

Unconfined Aquifer

Water Table

Zone of Aeration

Zone of Saturation

Karst Topography:

Dissolution of Limestone by Carbonic Acid

Caves/Caverns

Sinkhole

Sinking Streams

Spring

Dripstone Formations: Stalactites, Stalagmites, Dripstone Column

Wells:

Drawdown

Cone of Depression

Saltwater Infiltration

Human Influences on Streams and Aquifers

Agricultural Runoff

Storm water drainage

Increase in sediment load

Sewage

Industrial waste

ES09: The Rock Record and Geologic History

Geologic Timescale Divisions

Eon (Time):

Cryptozoic (Hidden Time) Represents 88% of geologic history

Phanerozoic (Visible Time) Represents 12% of geologic history

Era:

Hadean- Period immediately following the formation of the Earth

Archean-Permanent atmosphere forms as well as oceans; bacterial organisms appear

Proterozoic- First multicellular organisms appear, most organisms possess only

soft body parts, all ore marine in nature

Paleozoic- First fish, amphibians, insects, reptiles, and mammals appear, Pangaea forms

near the end of the Paleozoic triggering the Permian extinction (90% of all

species go extict)

Mesozoic – “The Age of Dinosaurs”; birds appear near the end of the era; non-flowering

plants are replaced by flowering plants; Dinosaurs go extinct 65 million

years ago after an asteroid strikes the Earth

Cenozoic – “The age of Mammals”; mammals radiate and occupy the niches left by the

extinction of the dinosaurs; modern humans appear approximately 200,000

years ago

Period: A divison of eras

Epoch: A division of periods

Relative Dating

Principles of Geology:

Uniformitarianism

Original Horizontality

Superposition

Cross-cutting Relationships

Inclusions

Correlation

Faunal Succession

Unconformities:

Disconformity

Non-Conformity

Angular Unconformity

Fossils:

Types of Fossils:

Per-mineralized: dinosaur bones, petrified wood

Actual Remains: Chemically preserved (i.e. Bog Bodies)

Frozen/Freeze-Dried Remains (i.e. mammoths frozen in

permafrost/ice, Andean mummies)

Fossils of Presence/Trace Fossils: footprints, animal borrows,

coprolites, gastroliths

Casts

Molds

Absolute Dating

Carbon-14

Daughter Isotope

Half-life

Parent Isotope

Radioactive Decay

Radioisotope

ES7a: Physiographic Provinces of Virginia

Coastal Plain

Geology: unconsolidated sediments overlying crystalline basement rock; formed as the Blue

Ridge and Appalachian Mountains weathered, eroded, and sediment was deposited

along the coastline.

Topography: Nearly flat and very close to sea-level

Important Natural Resources: Aggregate for Construction (mainly sands and gravels)

Piedmont

Geology: Underlain by igneous and metamorphic rocks; the igneous rocks are the roots of a

volcanic island arc formed at a subduction zone prior to the continental collision that

formed the Appalachian Mountains

Topography: Rolling hills that gradually increase in elevation as they approach the Blue Ridge;

separated from the Coastal Plain by a steep drop-off characterized by rapids and

waterfalls known as the Fall Line.

Important Natural Resources: Aggregate

Blue Ridge

Geology: Composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks; the oldest rocks in the state

Topography: A high ridge of distinct peaks; run along a NE-SW axis; Very narrow north of

Roanoke, but become a broad upland to the south.

Important Natural Resources:

Ridge and Valley

Geology: Comprises an extensive series of sedimentary rocks that were extensively folded and

reverse faulted during the late Paleozoic era when Africa and North America collided.

Topography: Has many long parallel ridges and valleys and extensive areas of karst topography.

Important Natural Resources: Crushed limestone and aggregate

Appalachian Plateau:

Geology: Mostly horizontal sedimentary beds that are slightly tilted towards the west

Topography: Highly irregular terrain due to the uniform weathering of the sedimentary beds and

the formation of extensive dendritic drainage.

Important Natural Resources: coal and natural gas

ES10: Oceanography

Chemical and Physical Properties of the Oceans:

Bodies of Water: Oceans and Seas

Currents:

Cause: Wind and Density Differences (due to differences in salinity and temperature)

Types: Surface, Thermohaline, and Turbidity Currents

Oceanography

Oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, Antarctic

Ocean Water Characteristics: Temperature, Salinity, Density

Sea-Level

Tides: Causes: Gravitational pull of the sun and moon

Lunar and Centrifugal Bulge

High and Low Tides

Ebb, Flow, and Slack Tides

Tidal Range

Extremes: Spring and Neap Tides

Thermocline

Waves: Breaker, Crest, Refraction, Surf, Trough, Wave Height, Wavelength

The Marine Environment:

Coastal Features:

Erosional Landforms: Bay, Beach, Headland aka Promontory, Notch,

Sea Cave, Sea Cliff, Sea Stack

Depositional Features: Barrier Islands, Bay-Mouth Bar, Lagoon,

Spit, Tombolo

Protective (man-made) Structures: Breakwater, Groin, Jetty, Sea Wall

Coastal Currents: Longshore Current and Drift, Rip Currents

Types of Coastlines:

Emergent Coastlines

Causes: Drop in sea-level (eustatic drop), tectonic or isostatic

uplift of coastal crust

Features: Wave-cut Platforms, Marine Terraces, Straightened Coastlines

Submergent Coastlines:

Causes: Rise in sea-level (eustatic rise), tectonic or isostatic

subsidence of coastal crust

Features: Drowned River Mouths, Estuaries, Irregular Coastlines

Seafloor Features:

Continental Margin: Continental Shelf, Continental Slope, Continental Rise

Ocean Basin Features: Abyssal Plain, Hydrothermal Vents, Mid-Ocean Ridge

Seamounts, Trenches

Marine Sediments: Muds and Oozes

ES11, 12: The Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate

The Atmosphere:

Development of the Atmosphere:

Degassing

Photosynthesis

Respiration

Layers of the Atmosphere

Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere:

Ionosphere

Exosphere

Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

Factors Affecting Insolation:

Heat Capacity (esp. Land versus Water)

Color (light versus dark)

The Spherical Shape of the Earth

Axial Inclination and Latitude

Greenhouse Gas Concentrations (i.e. methane, water vapor, carbon dioxide)

Earth’s Radiation Balance:

Moisture in the Atmosphere:

Evaporation versus Condensation