Shara M. Marshall, M.S.

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy:

Physiology:

Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical:

Cellular:

Tissue:

Organ:

Organ system:

Organismal:

Homeostasis

Definition:

Homeostasis is maintained by:

Components of a Control Mechanism (contain at least the following three components)

1.Receptor (sensor)

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2.Control center

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3.Effector

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Negative Feedback

When the response of a control mechanism reduces or shuts off/stops the original stimulus, this is called:

Example:

Positive Feedback

When the response of a control mechanism enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus, this is called:

Example:

ANATOMICAL REGIONS, POSITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Anatomical Position

Purpose:

Standard anatomical body position:

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Directional Terms

  • Superior (cranial) -
  • Inferior (caudal) -
  • Ventral (anterior) -
  • Dorsal (posterior)-
  • Medial-
  • Lateral-
  • Intermediate-
  • Proximal –
  • Distal -
  • Superficial-
  • Deep-

Regional Termsdesignate specific areas on the body

Anterior/Ventral

  • Orbital -Coxal-
  • Nasal-Femoral-
  • Oral-Patellar-
  • Cervical-Crural-
  • Thoracic-Fibular-
  • Axillary-Tarsal-
  • Sternal-
  • Abdominal-
  • Umbilical-
  • Pelvic-
  • Inguinal-
  • Pubic-
  • Acromial-
  • Brachial-
  • Antecubital-
  • Antebrachial-
  • Carpal-
  • Digital-

Posterior/Dorsal

  • Olecranal-
  • Popliteal-
  • Sural-
  • Calcaneal-
  • Plantar-
  • Occipital-
  • Scapular-
  • Vertebral-
  • Lumbar-
  • Sacral-
  • Gluteal-

Body Planes and Sections

Sagittal plane

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Midsagittal (median) plane

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Parasagittal plane

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Frontal (coronal) plane

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Transverse (horizontal) plane

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Body Cavities

Two Large Cavities:

Dorsal cavity encloses:

Two subdivisions:

•Cranial cavity

•Encases:

•Vertebral cavity

•Encases:

Ventral cavity

•Houses:

•Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):

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Thoracic cavity subdivisions:

•Two pleural cavities

•Each one houses:

•Mediastinum

•Contains:
•Also contains:

•Pericardial cavity

•Encloses:

Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:

•Abdominal cavity

•Contains:

•Pelvic cavity

•Contains:

Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

BASIC CHEMISTRY

Matter and Composition of Matter

Definition:

Matter is composed of elements -

Atoms-

Atomic Structure

Neutrons

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•Mass =

Protons

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•Mass =

Electrons

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•Mass =

•Equal in number to:

Energy

Definition:

Types of energy:

•Kinetic:

•Potential:

•Electrical:

Identifying Elements

Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons

•Compare hydrogen, helium and lithium

Atomic number =

Mass number =

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•Isotopes =

Atoms of Elements can Combine Chemically with other atoms to form Molecules and Compounds

•Molecule: (e.g., H2 or C6H12O6)

Chemical Bonds

Octet rule:

Chemically Inert Elements

Chemically Reactive Elements

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Ionic Bonds

Ions are formed by:

•Anions (– charge):

•Cations (+ charge):

Attraction of opposite charges results in:

Covalent Bonds

Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons

Allows:

Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal

•Equal sharing produces:

•CO2

Unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces:

•H2O

Hydrogen Bonds

Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule

CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS

Inorganic compounds

•Do not contain:(ex’s. water, salts, and many acids and bases)

Organic compounds

•Contain:(ex’s. carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids)

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Water

Salts

Ionic compounds that dissociate in water

Acids and Bases

Acids:

•HCl  H+ + Cl–

  • Bases:

•NaOH  Na+ + OH–

pH =

Acid-Base Concentration

Neutral solutions:

•pH =

•contains:

Acidic solutions

•pH =

•contains:

Basic solutions

•pH=

•contains:

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

For the following organic compounds, they are formed by a chemical reaction called dehydrationsynthesisand broken down by another type ofchemical reaction called hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches whose building blocks =

Three classes

•Monosaccharides-

•Disaccharides-

•Polysaccharides-

Functions

•Primary role:

Lipids

Main types:

•Triglycerides

•Phospholipids

•Steroids

Triglycerides

Composedof:

Three main functions

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Phospholipids

Composed of:

The phospholipid “head” is ______and the phospholipid “tail” is ______.

Phospholipids form:

Steroids

Lipids composed of:

Ex’s. -Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts

Proteins

Building blocks =

Functions of proteins include:

Protein Denaturation

Proteins can undergo changes in shape due to:

A denatured protein:

Enzymes

•Allows for millions of reactions/minute

Nucleic Acids

Building blocks =

  • Nucleotides are composed of:

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Contains Four nitrogenous bases:

•adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Four bases:

•adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U)

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Phosphorylation

CELLS

Generalized Cell

• Human cells have three basic parts:

•Plasma membrane—

•Cytoplasm—

•Nucleus—

The Plasma Membrane is a bimolecular layer of phospholipids and proteins and plays a dynamic role in cellular activity:

•The plasma membrane separates:

•The plasma membrane is semi-permeable which means that:

TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

Types of Membrane Transport

•A concentration gradient is:

•Passive Transport

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•Active Transport

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In the box above you will draw a concentration gradient of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) across the “semi permeable” membrane. Na+ is found in higher concentrations in the extracellular space than in the intracellular space, while K+ is found in greater concentrations in the intracellular space than in the extracellular space. After drawing your gradient use solid arrows to indicate which direction Na+ and K+ will move passively across the membrane. Use dashed arrows toindicate the direction that Na+ and K+ would actively move across the membrane.Be sure to use a key/color to label Na+ and K+.

Passive Transport

•Two main factors determine whether or not a substance can passively crossthe plasma membrane.

1.

2.

Three Types of Passive Transport Across Cellular membranes

•Simple diffusion-

•Facilitated diffusion-

•Osmosis-

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Importance of Osmosis

•When osmosis occurs:

•A change in cell volume:

  • Tonicity:

•Defined as:

•Isotonic:

•Hypertonic:

•Hypotonic:

Other Cellular Organelles:

  • Membranous structures
  • Nucleus with chromatin-
  • Mitochondria –
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (rough and smooth) –
  • Golgi Apparatus-
  • Lysosomes-
  • Non-membranous structures
  • Cytoskeleton -
  • Extensions of the plasma membrane
  • Cilia are –
  • Flagella are –

THE CELL CYCLE

•Includes:

•Interphase

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•Three Subphases:

•G1, S, G2-

•Cell Division (mitotic phase or mitosis)

•Includes four sub phases of mitosis (PMAT) and cytokinesis

Mitosis

  • Mitosis:

During the S-phase of Interphase DNA is Replicated

•Helicase:

•DNA polymerase:

•End result:

•This process is called:

•After DNA has been replicated:

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis—four stages of nuclear division:

•Prophase -

•Metaphase -

•Anaphase -

•Telophase -

•Cytokinesis –

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