How Far Was Henry VI Personally Responsible for the Problems He Faced from 1450

How far was Henry VI personally responsible for the problems he faced from 1450?

It would be unfair to lay the blame entirely at Henry VI for the problems that existed in England from 1450. His own inheritance existed as a result of the usurpation of Richard II by Henry Bolingbroke and the large family of Edward III presented Henry with rival claimants to the throne. Edward III began wars with France in 1337 and after Henry V had successfully laid claim to the French throne with a victory at Agincourt in 1415, Henry VI felt it was right to pursue a policy of appeasement, which one could view as financially prudent. While these factors aim to protect Henry VI from all blame it can not be ignored that he helped to create ‘over-mighty’ subjects in Edmund Beaufort and William de la Pole as well as giving too much influence to his wife, Margaret of Anjou, particularly after 1453. The actions of these individuals were at the core of Yorkist resentment, in particular Richard, Duke of York and Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick and their influence depended on the favour of the king. As a result Henry VI was himself heavily responsible for the problems of the 1450’s.

‘Henry IV had violently usurped and taken from King Richard II, his first cousin, whom he caused to be wretchedly murdered … Men say that ill-gotten gains cannot last.’ While it should not be viewed as a principal reason for instability during this period it is important to understand that Henry VI’s position as king was a result of this action and the doubtful claim of the Lancastrians to the throne strengthened the position of men such as Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester and Richard, Duke of York who both could lay claim to the throne because of the large family of Edward III. The dynastic struggle that existed in the 1450’s stemmed from this moment in history and not from the actions of Henry VI.

When Charles IV died in 1328 Edward III lay claim to the French throne as his mother was sister of the deceased French king. The French throne passed to Philip of Valois and in 1337 the Hundred Years War began. Henry V inflicted a famous defeat on the French at Agincourt in October 1415 and continued to bring large areas of France under control. This led to the Treaty of Troyes in 1420 which betrothed the daughter of Charles VI, Catherine of Valois to Henry and made him heir. However the success in France came at a price, in particular the heavy burden of debt and the death of Henry V when his son, Henry VI, was only 9 months old. These problems, which had repercussions during the 1450’s, should not be attributed to Henry VI.

In 1450 debt stood at £372,000 and was increasing by £20,000 per year. The French affair was crippling the economy and Henry VI and his councillors, most notably Edmund Beaufort and William de la Pole, saw appeasement as necessary. Edward IV was calculated in his peaceful approach to foreign policy and has been praised for the Treaty of Picquigny. Although the policy of appeasement was met with opposition, from men such as Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester and Richard, Duke of York due to the levels of national debt it is unfair to criticise the aims of Henry VI’s foreign policy.

While it is possible to protect Henry VI from entire blame for the problems of the 1450’s the evidence shows that his actions were principally responsible for the dynastic struggle raging out of control during the 1450’s. The influence of a powerful nobility depended on the favour of the king and it was this influence that Henry VI failed to control. Most notably the actions of Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk incensed Richard, Duke of York who having married Cecily Neville was backed by the powerful Neville faction. William de la Pole negotiated a two year truce with France at Tours in 1444 which secured a marriage for Henry VI to Margaret of Anjou in April 1445 but at the same time led to the surrender of Maine in March 1448. He was also influential in an ill conceived and foolhardy decision to capture Fougeres in 1449 which provoked an attack by Charles VII on Normandy that smashed English forces in 1450. Richard, Duke of York who disliked the idea of appeasement had held positions of lieutenant in France from 1436-1437 and governor of France and Normandy from 1440-1445. He held estates in Normandy that were lost as a result of Suffolk’s actions. Added to this in 1447 his command in France was passed to Somerset, Suffolk’s ally. Suffolk was criticised not only by Richard, Duke of York but he was a major cause of resentment during Cade’s rebellion of 1450. Suffolk could not escape his failures and met his death in 1450. While the focus of Yorkist resentment up to his death was Suffolk’s own actions the sway that he held in the council was a clear sign that Henry VI was unable to curb the influence of powerful members of the nobility and at a time when strong kingship was so vital he must be principally blamed for the continuing failures of Suffolk.

Yorkist resentment towards Edmund Beaufort began in the 1440’s as along with Suffolk he was blamed for the surrender of Normandy. Also when Richard, Duke of York was relieved of his post in France in 1447 it was Somerset who took over the position. Margaret of Anjou sought allies in the Beaufort faction and her preferential treatment of the Beauforts further alienated opponents. Somerset maintained his supremacy within the council after the death of Suffolk with the appointment as captain of Calais in 1451 despite attempts by Richard, duke of York, who had been admitted onto the council, to curb his influence. In 1452, at Dartford, York was outwitted by Somerset leading to a suspended sentence of attainder on York.. On the recovery of Henry VI in 1454 Somerset was once again appointed captain of Calais over York himself. This personal feud between Somerset and York sparked the first blow of the Wars of the Roses, in the Battle of St Albans on 22nd May 1455. Once again Henry VI had failed to curb the influence of Edmund Beaufort and the magnification of a personal feud into open warfare should be laid at the blame principally of Henry VI.

The influence of Somerset over the king also had repercussions regarding his relationship to Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. Warwick disputed the right to the lordship of Glamorgan granted to Somerset by Henry VI in 1453, even though Warwick had held it and administered it well for three years. This allied Warwick to Richard, Duke of York as both men felt they had been wronged by the king and his councillors. This was particularly important as both men were immensely wealthy. York owned vast estates throughout England, Wales and Ireland and held several castles, including his stronghold in Ludlow. The power of Warwick was apparent in his massive fortresses and great armies of retainers who became pivotal on his return to England in June 1460 with Edward, the earl of March. Due to the influence of powerful members of the nobility in the kings council, notably Suffolk and Somerset, Henry VI alienated two of the most powerful men in the kingdom and he himself must bear the responsibility for this.

Too much political influence was also given to Margaret of Anjou, particularly after Henry’s incapacitation in August 1453. Margaret sought allies in the Beaufort faction from an early stage and her preferential treatment of the Beauforts further alienated opponents. The birth of Prince Edward in October 1453 led to increased involvement on the part of Margaret for the protection of the Lancastrian throne. After the defeat at St Albans in 1455 she set up a court in the Midlands which was made up of families hostile to York. Margaret, it seems, was influential in 1459 in persuading Henry that York and Warwick, who she had earlier tried to have arrested for crimes of piracy, intended to seize the throne. As a result of Blore Heath the leaders of the Yorkist party were declared rebels at the Parliament of the Devils in Coventry in November 1459. After victory at Wakefield on 30th December 1460 Margaret’s forces ravaged the towns and villages through which they passed leading to many changing allegiance from Lancaster to York. While Margaret may be commended for her loyalty to the Lancastrian cause her actions from August 1453 fuelled the struggle between the two sides. Although Henry VI had clearly suffered from his collapse in 1453 strong kingship was still necessary at the time and particularly as Margaret had bore responsibility for losses in France she held too much influence in affairs after 1453. This was the fault of Henry VI.

It is clear that Henry VI did not show enough strength to curb political influence of powerful individuals, most notably Suffolk, Somerset and Margaret. This fuelled the tension between the major players of the Lancastrians and Yorkists. The personal effectiveness of the king can also be shown as weak by looking at his actions during the French problem and Cade’s rebellion. Henry VI only visited France once during his reign and his lack of presence only magnified criticism levelled at him for the losses in France. Also during Cade’s rebellion, although the outcome was favourable for the king, Henry VI decided to withdraw to KenilworthCastle in Warwickshire. While this is not a pivotal factor in the problems of the 1450’s it demonstrates that throughout his reign Henry VI did not possess the qualities of a medieval monarch. Powerful individuals such as Suffolk, Somerset and Margaret took advantage of these weaknesses and as a result were able to yield influence. Their subsequent actions fuelled the problems which Henry VI faced in the 1450’s. While it is important to understand that Henry VI did not inherit an easy situation it must be emphasised that his lack of kinglike qualities was the principal cause of the problems of the 1450’s.

Assess the reasons for the restoration of Henry VI in 1470.

Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick was instrumental in securing the Yorkist throne by 1461. Due to his great armies of retainers he was able to provide vital military support to both Richard, Duke of York prior to his death at Wakefield in December 1460 and Edward, Earl of March. The root of all Edward IV’s problems during his first reign was the deterioration of his relationship with Warwick who expected more gratitude and favour for his loyalty during the years of dynastic struggle. Other factors brought about this breakdown in relations such as the marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and subsequent repercussions, the rise to prominence of other powerful individuals such as Lord Hastings and William Herbert and the decision made by Edward IV to follow an alliance with Burgundy. All of these factors reduced the influence of the Neville’s and heightened Warwick’s resentment towards Edward IV. With support from the Lancastrian contingent, George Duke of Clarence and Louis XI, Warwick took his dissatisfaction as far as invasion in September 1470 with devastating effect.

The power and influence of the Neville clan must be emphasised when looking at the problems Edward IV faced during his first reign. Richard Neville held massive fortresses in England and his power was also apparent in great armies of retainers. He held close connections to a number of peers in the House of Lords by blood or marriage and his popularity was seen across the country from the north down to London. The Neville’s had aligned themselves to the Yorkist faction as a result of a dispute over lands in Glamorgan. After the incapacity of Henry VI, Warwick was vital in supporting Richard, Duke of York in his request of the protectorship. In 1460 Warwick was pivotal in the Yorkist invasion which led to victory at Towton in March 1461. In an age where the king could reward loyalty through patronage Warwick would have felt he deserved substantial gains for his efforts. In the first months of Yorkist control Warwick was successful in taking rebel fortresses in the north of England, including castles of Bamburgh, Alnwick and Dunstanburgh. His efforts were rewarded with positions such as captain of Calais, admiral of England and constable of DoverCastle. The support of this mightiest of nobles was the foundation on which the Yorkist invasion of 1460 had rested and although he received gratitude initially events over the course of the reign increased his resentment towards the king.

It is essential to emphasise the importance of Warwick in the triumph of the Yorkist dynasty in order to understand his growing resentment towards Edward IV during the first reign. After securing a truce with the French king Louis XI in October 1463 Warwick sought a suitable French bride to strengthen Anglo-French rapport. It was understandable that Warwick felt betrayed by Edward when on 14September 1464 he announced he was wed to Elizabeth Woodville. During the medieval period marriage was a crucial tool in establishing strong domestic and foreign ties. For this reason the hard work that Warwick had put in to establish a beneficial French marriage was undone by the impulse of Edward IV. The way in which Edward had dealt with the marriage was the beginning of growing resentment on the part of Warwick.

The Woodville marriage was not only an irresponsible decision by Edward IV for diplomatic reasons. Elizabeth Woodville was a commoner and the union went against royal marital convention since she had two sons by a previous marriage to Sir John Grey. Added to this her former husband had fought for the Lancastrian cause at the Battle of St Albans in 1461 where he had died. These factors not only increased the resentment of Warwick towards the king but had more widespread effects around the country with regard the popularity of Edward IV since her family were soon to be raised to the upper echelons of English aristocracy.

Elizabeth Woodville had a large family and it was not to be long before her several siblings were linked to the greatest houses in the kingdom. Her sisters were married to the heir of Lord Herbert and the duke of Buckingham. This added to Warwick’s resentment since these were eligible bachelors for his own daughters to marry. Lord Herbert himself was elevated to lieutenant in South Wales above Warwick and since he had already lost the stewardship of the duchy of Lancaster to Lord Hastings losing out on marriages was a further source of resentment. Adding to this was the acquisition of some of the highest positions in the land for the Woodville clan. Elizabeth’s brother became bishop of Salisbury and another admiral of the fleet. In 1466 Earl Rivers, her father, became treasurer of England in place of Lord Mountjoy. This added fuel to Warwick’s fire since Lord Mountjoy was Warwick’s uncle. After being the foundation of Yorkist success back in 1461 Warwick was progressively becoming more detached from the influence of Edward IV. His influence over the king declined even further as Edward failed to act on the advice of George Neville who he had made archbishop of York in September 1465. George Neville was subsequently dismissed in June 1467 when he was seeking dispensation from the Pope to marry his niece to Clarence. The Woodville’s rise caused the decline of Neville influence, to the anger of Warwick, and this was displayed most clearly in foreign policy.

In foreign affairs Edward moved towards Burgundy while Warwick believed England should seek a permanent alliance with the traditional enemy of England, France and Louis XI. Not only had Edward ignored the advice of Warwick with regard a Anglo French marriage but in 1468 Edward’s sister, Margaret, married the duke of Burgundy’s eldest son resurrecting the Anglo Burgundian alliance. An alliance with Burgundy was always favourable to the English merchants although to Warwick the decision of Edward IV was a final act of betrayal.

While the root cause of Edward IV’s problems remains the growing resentment of Warwick the decline of popular opinion against the king must not be forgotten. While the marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was not a popular decision a number of other actions led to the decline of popular opinion against Edward. Firstly Edward IV had not brought peace during his first reign. There was widespread disorder and battles such as Hedgeley Moor and Hexham continued. As a result Edward IV imposed a tax of a fifteenth part of all property on the people and another fifteenth to pay for fighting. Poverty was therefore widespread during this period. Secondly Edward associated himself with councillors who developed terrible reputations. John Tiptoft, the earl of Worcester became the most hated of Edward IV’s councillors due to the severity of his execution methods. Popular discontent was evident in the number of rebellions that took place during his first reign such as one in Lincolnshire in the spring of 1470 and in the north in July 1469 led by Robin of Redesdale. Widespread unpopularity can be supported when Edward’s supporters, notably the marquess of Montague abandoned him in September 1470. Popular discontent relied on powerful individuals to exact change and Edward had aggravated one of the most powerful individuals in England, namely Richard Neville.

The situation was made more threatening to Edward due to the support of George, Duke of Clarence and the French king, Louis XI towards Warwick. Warwick had aligned himself to Clarence trying to engineer a marriage between him and his daughter, Isabel. Edward was furious with this prospect although Clarence defied his brother by marrying Warwick’s daughter in July 1469. Clarence proved particularly important as he was heir presumptive. After Edward IV had renewed the Anglo Burgundian alliance Louis XI was wise to cultivate a rift between Edward and Warwick even further in order that he could then wipe out the threat from Burgundy. Warwick’s growing resentment had led him to seek out suitable support and he found this in Clarence and Louis XI. All Warwick needed was a figurehead behind which he could look to exact revenge.