Procrastination 1

How Do Parenthetical Citations and the Reference List Connect?

Directions:

  1. Find the highlight feature in Microsoft Word. It’s on the Reviewing toolbar. If the highlight feature is not visible, go to View, Toolbars, Formatting.
  2. Go to the last page of the model paper. Notice that each source in the Reference list is color-coded.
  3. Go back to the beginning of the document and skim for parenthetical citations. Each time you find a parenthetical citation, find the source in the reference list. Use the same color to highlight the material from that source in the body of the paper.
  4. An example is done for you on the second page of the model issue paper.

What can you conclude about

  • how parenthetical citations begin?
  • where parenthetical citations go?
  • when you should provide a parenthetical citation?

Procrastination 1

Procrastination:

Causes and Effects

Sara Bellum

Composition I

Cecelia Munzenmaier

Hamilton College

August 3, 2007

Procrastination: Causes and Effects

It’s 10p.m. and the research paper is due the next morning. Surrounded by printouts, Sam types frantically. Two weeks ago, it seemed that there was plenty of time to get the paper done. Last week, a sick child made it hard to study. Now it’s crunch time. Looking at the clock, Sam wonders, “Why do I keep doing this to myself?” Researchers have found that procrastination like Sam’s is common (“DePaul,” 2007). However, they disagree about what causes people to put things off and whether procrastination can have positive effects.

What is procrastination?

The word procrastination comes from two Latin terms meaning to put forwarduntil tomorrow (Steel, n.d.a). Standard dictionary definitions all include the idea of postponement or delay. Dr. Piers Steel (n.d.a), who has reviewed hundreds of studies on the subject, observes that procrastination is rarely judged to be a positive thing. He includes its negative consequences in his definition: to procrastinate is “to voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse-off for the delay. Another expert, Dr. Joseph R. Ferrari (2005), distinguishes between people who tend to put things off and “chronic” or “real” procrastinators: “Remember, 80% of us procrastinate, but 20% are procrastinators. ...[T]he 20% who are real procrastinators, where this is their lifestyle, ... need therapy.”Ferrari (2000) identifies three types of procrastinators:

Arousal types, who get a thrill from beating a deadline.

Avoiders, who put off doing things that might make others think badly of them.

Decisional procrastinators, who postpone making a decision.

What causes procrastination?

If procrastinators are not all alike, the causes of procrastination may vary too. Several studies found that chronic procrastinators tend to have low self-esteem and focus on the past more than the future (Specter & Ferrari, 2000). In some cases, procrastination may be a response to an authoritative parenting style (Marano, 2003) or a rebellion against external demands (Ferrari, 2005). Some researchers have found that procrastinators tend to be perfectionists (Specter & Ferrari, 2000). However, Steel (n.d.b) does not believe that perfectionism causes procrastination. In his view, only one theory is supported by research: the Discounted Expectancy Theory. To illustrate, he uses the example of a student who puts off writing a paper. When the deadline is far off, the rewards for socializing now are greater than those for finishing a task not due until later. As the deadline looms, the rewards for finishing the paper become more important. This theory, according to Steel, gives the most complete explanation of procrastination, because it includes smaller “piece[s] of the puzzle” like rebellion and avoiding unpleasant tasks.

What are the effects of procrastination?

Most researchers believe that procrastination has mostly bad effects. Several studies, including one by Tice and Baumeister (1997), found that procrastinators got lower grades and had higher levels of stress and illness. Businesses are becoming increasingly aware of the productivity costs of procrastination (“DePaul,” 2007). However, some argue that procrastination can have benefits. Choi and Chu (2005) say that not all procrastinators are lazy and undisciplined. While “passive procrastinators” are more stressed and less efficient, “active procrastinators” can adapt quickly to fast-changing environments. They “prefer to work under pressure” and “if something unexpectedly comes up, they will switch gears and engage in new tasks they perceive as more urgent.” Schraw, Wadkins, and Olafson (2007) found that many college students use procrastination as a way to manage their time. They quote a student who felt that “I just don’t have time not to procrastinate. If I did everything the way it could be done, I

wouldn’t have a life” (p. 21).

Although some researchers, such as Tice and Bannister (1997) have conceded that procrastinators may be right when they say they work best under pressure, most studies have focused on the negative effects of procrastination. Recent research (Choi & Chu, 2005; Schraw, Wadkins, & Olafson, 2007) suggests that commonly accepted ideas about procrastination and its causes and effects may be too simplistic. Some people may be able to use strategic delay to handle rapidly changing expectations or situtations where they have too much to do in too little time.

References

Choi, J. N, & Chu, A. H. (2005, June 1). Rethinking procrastination: Positive effects of “active” procrastination on attitudes and performance. Journal of Social Psychology. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from HighBeam database.

DePaul University study shows prevalence of chronic procrastination regardless of gender or national origin [press release]. (2007, July 16). Retrieved August 3, 2007, from

Ferrari, J. (2000, Special Issue). Procrastination and attention: Factor analysis of attention deficit, boredomness, intelligence, self-esteem, and task delay frequencies. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 15(5), 185-196. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from Academic Search Elite database.

Ferrari, J. (2005, December 7). There’s always tomorrow [live chat with E. Hoover]. Transcript available at Chronicle of Higher Education Web site:

Marano, H. E. (2003, August 23). Procrastination: Ten things to know. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from

Schraw, G., Wadkins, T., & Olafson, L. (2007). Doing the things we do: A grounded theory of academic procrastination. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 12–25.

Specter, M., & Ferrari, J. (2000, Special Issue). Time orientations of procrastinators: Focusing on the past, present, or future?. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 15(5), 197-202. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from Academic Search Elite database.

Steel, P. (n.d.a).Definition of procrastination. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from Procrastination Central Web site:

Steel, P. (n.d.b).Theories of procrastination. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from Procrastination Central Web site:

Tice, D., & Baumeister, R. (1997, November). Longitudinal study of procrastination, performance, stress, and health: The costs and benefits of dawdling. Psychological Science, 8(6), 454-458. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from Academic Search Elite database.