3.2.1.4
History of India
Evolution of Administrative System
GLOSSARY
Qanungo – Officer in charge of keeping records and statistics of a pargana
Chaudhury – Officer in charge of the finances of the jamin
Takawi Loan – Agricultural loan
Jama dami – Assessed income in terms of dams
Mukaddam – Headman of the village
Diwan-i-suba – Head of the imperial official in the province in charge of the finance and the revenue
Khalsa land – Land managed by the state officials for the state
Ijara System – System in which the collection of the revenue is made by a contract.
Jagirdari System – System of the assignment of the revenue of the produce of the land.
Faujdar – Official of the diwan-i-suba who is the military representative of the Mughal emperor in the province.
OBJECTIVES
The students would
- Learn about the important officials in the Jagirdari System
- Understand the problems in the Jagirdari System
- Know the contemporary viewpoint for the reasons of the problems
SUMMARY
The jagirs were administered by an elaborate set of officers. The Qanungo kept all the records about the jagirs. The Chaudhury’s knowledge of the land and its produce was utilized by the Mughal administrators. The head of the imperial official in the province was the diwan-i-suba. The faujdar was the military representative of the Mughal emperor in the province. The Wakia-nawis was the news reporter.
In the earlier regime the Jagirdars were transferred within about three years. This did not give them an opportunity to settle down. But later when they were not transferred, they began to establish themselves as small kings. Also with the increase of the number of mansabs there was no jagir left and there was faction fighting in court.
Eminent historians have different opinions in this matter. The crisis was manifold and its failure contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire itself.
FAQs
1. Enlist the functions of the Chaudhury.
The Chaudhury, was a Zamindar He collected revenue from the smaller Zamindars and also became a ‘Zamindar’ i.e. a zamin surety for the smaller zamindars. He distributed the agricultural loan to the peasants. He also helps to formulate the Jamadami and signs the Jamadami order along with the Mukaddam. Without his seal and signature the Jamadami is not valid.
2. Discuss the powers of the diwan-i-suba.
The diwan-i-suba could report against the Jagirdar to the emperor but he cannot remove the Jagirdar. If the emperor gives the command that the Jagirdar should be removed the diwan-i-suba may then take the help of others to remove the Jagirdar. But on his own he can only report.
3. Why was the post of Amin abolished?
During the reign of Shah Jahan the post of Amin was abolished because it was thought to be a mere duplication of the work of the diwan-i-suba.
4. Why was there faction fighting in court after the death of Aurangzeb?
Aurangzeb had to increase the number of Mansabdars because of his wars in Rajputana and in Deccan. Aftersome time no jagir was available for the Mansabdar After the death of Aurangzeb this problem increased as Bahadur Shah gave Mansabs to almost anybody he met in the darbar. The number of Mansabs increased tremendously but there was no jagir. So there was fierce faction fighting within the court
5. How did Mizam-ul-Mulk try to rectify the problem of scarce zamins?
Mizam-ul-Mulk who was appointed the wazir tried to cancel the Ijara and increase the Khalsa land to solve the problem of scarce zamins.
6. Why must the faujdar obey the diwan-i-suba?
Technically the faujdar is the military representative of the Mughal emperor in the province. He is not supposed to be under the diwan-i-suba but under the subedar. But because of the collection of the revenue involved, the faujdar had to obey the order of the diwan-i-suba. So he is not under the diwan-i-suba but has to follow his orders so far as revenue collection is concerned.
7. What was the role of the Wakia-nawis?
The Wakia-nawis is the staff of the imperial office and is actually the news reporter. He has no power to remove anybody but he could give adverse report against somebody on which some action maybe taken.
8. Why did Shah Jahan reduce the salary of the mansabdars?
During the reign of Jahangir, heincreased the number of the Mansabdars, increased their salaries and gave more jagirs. So at one point of time it became a strain on the Mughal Empire. As a result of this during the time of Shah Jahan certain measures were taken to reduce their salaries.
9. Why did the emperors transfer the jagirdars?
Earlier emperors transferred the Jagirdars so as not to give the Jagirdar an opportunity to settle down. Once a Jagirdar became stable they tended to establish themselves as kings was in the case of Sadat Ali Khan of Awadh or Murshid Quli Khan of Bengal.
10.Mention the reasons for the crisis in the Jagirdari System?
The reason for the crisis of the Jagirdari System was manifold – it was not only a crisis in the agrarian sector or the higher aspiration of the Mughal ruling class or the Jagirdars not being able to collect the revenue or the institution of the Ijara but there was also the faction fighting.
QUIZ
1. The faujdar was under the
A)QanungoB) Chaudhury C) Subedar
2. The Wakia-nawis was a
A) revenue collector B) military official C) News reporter
3. The military representative of the Mughal emperor in the province was
A) Faujdar B) Amin C) Mukaddam
4.Satish Chandra written a book called
A) The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb B) Parties and Politics of the Mughal Court C) Ain-i-Akbari
5. Murshid Quli Khan was the Jagirdar of
A) Awadh B) Surat C) Bengal
6. The Qanungo was a
A) Kayasth B) Vaishya C) Brahmin
7. The Takawi Loan was a loan meant for
A) trade B) agriculture C) construction
8. The headman of an area is called
A) Mukaddam B) Zamindar C) Qanungo
9. The head of the imperial officials in the province is the
A) Amin B) Diwan-i-suba C) Chaudhury
10. Abdullah Khan was the wazir of Emperor
A) Aurangzeb B) Bahadur Shah C) Farruksiyar
ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss the privileges of the Chaudhury
2. Enlist the officials of the Jagirdari System along with their functions.
3. Highlight the problems of the Jagirdari System
4.Describe the efforts made to salvage the Jagirdari System
5. Discuss the opinions of contemporary historians regarding the reasons for the crisis of the Jagirdari System.
3.2.1.4
History of India
Evolution of Administrative System
Akbar had evolved and perfected various ways to govern his Empire. One of the mechanisms was the Mansabdari System. It evolved and matured during Akbar’s time. The two numbers ‘zat’ and ‘sawar’ assigned to a Mansabdar defined his position in the court and the number of cavalry he commanded. This system worked for some time and thereafter like most other systems, a crisis developed within itself. The Jagirdari System was evolved to pay the salary of the Mansabdars. In fact both were complex apparatus to mop up the surplus of the agrarian sector. As Irfan Habib would say ‘All these mechanisms were to secure the bulk of the peasants’ surplus.’
We saw the evolution of the Jagirdari System, its development and working, the different types of jagirs that existed in the Mughal Empire and dealt with some of the difficulties that the Jagirdars faced. They ranged from the rates of collection fixed by the Centre to the mid-season transfer of the jagirdars. We saw some of the rights of the Jagirdars. We had also seen some of the functionaries in this system. We shall deal with some more officials in the Jagirdari System. We shall look at the crisis that developed in this system leading to its demise.
There was three-tier administration.
Staff of the Jagirdar
1) Local officials: a) The Qanungo and b) Chaudhury
2) Staff of the Empire
3) Imperial officials
The Qanungo was either a Kayasth or Kshatriya of Northern India. They were good in revenue. In Bengal in the early 18th century most of the Qanungos were Kayasthas. In case of the Chaudhury, which is the second of the local officials, he was a Zamindar (a leading zamindar). How the Chaudhury evolved and came into this position is a long history. It has been ascertained that Chaudhury originated from the 14th century onwards. Chaudhury’s function as a local official unaffected by the transfer of the Jagirdar is to collect the Imperial revenue. Chaudhury is also a hereditary office; it is for his life and after the death his succession would require an imperial ‘sanat’/ order. He may also be revoked only by the Imperial order.
Chaudhury has another function. He collects revenue from the smaller Zamindars and also becomes a ‘Zamindar’ i.e. a zamin surety for the smaller zamindars. So Chaudhury has two very important functions although he has certain other functions as well. For example he distributes the agricultural loan called the Takawi Loan to the peasants along with the Mukaddam, who is the headman of the area. He also helps to formulate the Jamadami (the demand for the revenue) and signs the Jamadami order along with the Mukaddam. Without his seal and signature the Jamadami is not valid.
The role of the Chaudhury was very significant in the Mughal administration. His holding consisted of his whole property including palatial houses and the land assigned to him by the emperor. He was given some remuneration for his services. This remuneration was always a proportion of the land revenue that he collected. In fact the Mughal government cleverly used the knowledge of the Zamindar about the land and its productivity to maximize the land revenue collection.
Chaudhury gets certain remuneration for his services. In the beginning it was 2 ¼% in Gujarat. Later this was reduced and finally it was reduced to 5/8%. But during the later years of Aurangzeb his remuneration increased, given certain cash allowance called ‘nankar’ and also certain ‘Inam’ lands. Since he is a zamindar, his core zamindari i.e. his personal zamindari is assessed either at a lower rate or he is not paying any revenue for his own land. So Chaudhury has certain privileges and certain functions.As a zamin of the smaller zamindars he gets 5% of the revenue paid by them. Chaudhury continued till the British days although from 18th century onwards their functions, powers and duties of the zamindar changed to a considerable extent.
According to Abul Fazl the zamindars in the Mughal empire could muster about 4.5 million retainers mostly infantrymen. In addition to these there were the imperial staff appointed by the emperor. All in all as a historian would say ‘it was a viscous circle of coercion helping to maintain a machinery of coercion.
The head of the imperial official in the province is the diwan-i-suba (diwan who is in charge of the finance and the revenue). He has a fairly large number of staff in each province and he has certain powers. He could report against the Jagirdar to the emperor but he cannot remove the Jagirdar. If the emperor gives the command that the Jagirdar should be removed diwan-i-suba may then take the help of others to remove the Jagirdar. But on his own he can only report.
The diwan-i-suba has certain other officials as well. One who was fairly important is the faujdar. Technically he is the military representative of the Mughal emperor in the province. He is not supposed to be under the diwan-i-suba but under the subedar. But because of the collection of the revenue involved, the faujdar had to obey the order of the diwan-i-suba. So he is not under the diwan-i-suba but has to follow his orders so far as revenue collection is concerned.
Some of the bigger zamindars had problems with the faujdar and during the later years of Aurangzeb he tried to solve the problem by giving faujdari powers to the bigger Jagirdars. This did not solve the problem at all.
Apart from the faujdar, the other person was called Wakia-nawis. He is actually the news reporter. He has no power to remove anybody but he could give adverse report against somebody on which some action maybe taken. It is stated that the Wakia-nawis was very corrupt but some were honest too. These are the staff of the Imperial officials.
In the 27th year of Akbar he ordered a new official be appointed called Amin. This Amin created by Akbar has the same power a diwn-i-suba. But in 1634 during the reign of Shah Jahan the post of Amin was abolished because it was thought to be a mere duplication of the work that diwan-i-suba was doing. So there were certain changes within the staff pattern of the Imperial officials in the jagir itself. But basically these remained more or less the same except that in the 18th century the faujdars were becoming too powerful.
Problems in the Jagirdari System
In the early days of Akbar (till the 31st year of Akbar), the jama i.e. the revenue estimate of the Khalsa was ¼ of the total jama. The Mughals divided the land into two types as far as revenue is concerned – the Jagirdari areas and the Khalsa areas (managed by the state). In the 31st year of Akbar Khalsa occupied ¼ of the total jama. After the death of Akbar during the time of Jahangir this changed abruptly. The reasons are not very clear even today. But it appears that after accession, Jahangir increased the number of the Mansabdars, increased their salaries and gave more jagirs. So at one point of time it became a strain on the Mughal Empire. As a result of this during the time of Shah Jahan certain measures were taken to reduce their salaries. But so far as the Jagirdari System is concerned, Shah Jahan tried to follow the policy of Akbar in the sense that he tried to increase the Khalsa land. By the end of his reign Khalsa land had reached 1/5 of the jama of the Mughal Empire almost to the point where Akbar had left it.
During the first 20 years of Aurangzeb the Khalsa land increase more and more. But during the last years of Aurangzeb there was a crisis which could be seen very clearly in the fact that after a certain time no jagir was available for the Mansabdar. One of the contemporary writes Anand Ram Muklis stated that it is very difficult to get a jagir but it is almost impossible to take possession of it without a very large force. So Aurangzeb had to increase the number of Mansabdars because of his wars in Rajputana and in Deccan. Instead of the Rajputs he had taken the Deccanis and the Marathas and the number of Mansabdars increased to a great extent during the last 20 years of his reign.
This led to a severe crisis in the Jagirdari System. After the death of Aurangzeb this problem increased. During the first years of Bahadur Shah he had given Mansabs to almost anybody he met in the darbar. The number of Mansabs increased tremendously but there was no jagir. So there was fierce faction fighting within the court on which Prof. Satish Chandra written a book ‘Parties and Politics of the Mughal Court 1707 – 1740’. Here he had shown that the faction fighting is not based on religious grounds which were earlier thought. This was based on personal loyalties and personal interests.
The problem was tried to be resolved by the Mughal court and the secretary of the dead Aurangzeb, Hinayatullah tried to make some reforms. But by that time the vested interest in the court had solidly entrenched themselves and the emperors did not have any power at all. By the mid 1720s during the time of Farruksiyar who was a very incompetent emperor with his incompetent wazir Abdullah Khan, the court order was a mere paper; nobody listened to it. Furthermore the diwan Ratan Chand gave Ijara (contract) mostly to the Hindu merchants and the Kashmiris. It is not clear why the Kashmiris, but the Hindu merchants and the Mutsuddis (clerks) of the court maneuvered to get mansabs and Ijaras in the jagirs. This led to serious problems and in 1721 Mizam-ul-Mulk who founded the dynasty in the Deccan in Hyderabad was appointed the wazir. He tried to cancel the Ijara and tried to increase the Khalsa land. He tried to solve the problem. But by that time it was too late because of the vested interests.
Thus nothing was done; things continued to deteriorate as years rolled on. Some of the Jagirdars, particularly the big ones, like Sadat Ali Khan ofAwadh or Murshid Quli Khan of Bengal created their principalities out of the jagir and became almost semi autonomous kings themselves.
That is why earlier emperors transferred the Jagirdars at short intervals. It had its own problems but it did not give the Jagirdar an opportunity to settle down. Once a Jagirdar becomes stable they establish themselves as kings. This was the beginning of the end of the Jagirdari System.