Historical Security Council
Topic: Situation in India and Pakistan, March 31,1948
DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMITTEE
Under Chapter V of the United Nations Charter, the Security Council is responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. Complaints regarding breaches of peace are brought before the Council and its members decide how to act, often exploring diplomatic and peaceful alternatives over more aggressive options. In order to more adequately understand the security threat at hand, the Council will often initiate fact-finding missions and investigations; the Council will also pursue mediation initiatives usually augmented by the appointment of special representatives or the recommendation of the UN Secretary-General to lead such efforts.
In 1948, the Security Council was made up of 11 member states of the United Nations; today, it has 15 member states. The council has always consisted of the permanent 5 (P5) nations: China, France, the Soviet Union (today: the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. The P5 nations hold a veto-power, an ability which allows the nation to stop any resolution from passing. In addition to the five permanent members, six non-permanent members were each elected for two year terms. For a resolution to pass in the Security Council, it required seven votes in favour, with none of the permanent members voting against (which would automatically be a veto). It is important to know that the Security Council is the only UN body that can issue binding resolutions under Chapter VII, which means that breaking a Security Council resolution is considered against international law.
BACKGROUND
British Occupation in India
British colonisation of India indirectly started with the East India Company (EIC) during the time of the Mughal Empire. Originally a trading organization, it gained control of vast land using private armies in the 17th century and slowly turned into an occupying force. The Mughal Empire lost much of its power during the 18th century. The company ruled India until 1858, when the British-controlled area was put under direct imperial rule. At that point, the crown had direct control over those appointed to British governing system.
The change to an imperial rule was grounded in the hiring of locals into the British military force. These “Sepoys“, as they were called, became a large portion of the military power of the United Kingdom in occupied India. Cultural differences led to uprisings by Sepoys that were quickly dealt with by the occupying forces. The introduction of the Enfield Rifle increased tensions dramatically, as the grease on the cartridges were made of either beef or pork. Needing to bite off the tips of the bullets, both Hindu and Muslim Sepoys took great offense, leading to the first sign of an organized Indian-wide retaliation and the decision to change the form of occupation.
Indian National Congress
An important part of the independence movement in India was the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Its original purpose was to increase Indian representation in the government. After a few years, the Indian National Congress began to push for bigger changes and parts of the group began to oppose the British. However, it was not until 1929 that the organization specifically said that it wanted and was working toward full independence for India. Many of the most important leaders in India’s independence movement, including Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Mohammed Ali Jinnah, were deeply involved in the Indian National Congress.
Gandhi
For many, the leader and symbol of the Indian independence movement was Mohandas “Mahatma” Gandhi. His methods were incredibly important in the Indian struggle against the British. The primary method Gandhi used was “satyagraha“, which involved civil disobedience and non-cooperation with the British. This method, along with “ahimsa“, or non-violence, separated the Indian independence movement from earlier groups resisting colonial rule. One of the ways in which Gandhi led the resistance of British rule was by boycotting British and other foreign-made goods. Gandhi encouraged Indians to be self-sufficient by rejecting Western clothing in favour of the traditional homespun khadi. In 1930, Gandhi led the Salt March, in which thousands of Indians marched nearly 250 miles to the sea to make their own salt. This march was a protest against the salt taxes the Indian had to pay the British. This tax made it mostly impossible to produce salt locally and made India dependent on the British for this common good. Through displays such as these, Gandhi was able to mobilize the Indian population and frustrate the British rulers. The British tried many times to weaken his influence, often by putting him in jail. They did not succeed.
“If my letter makes no appeal to your heart, on the eleventh day of this month I shall proceed with such co-workers of the Ashram as I can take, to disregard the provisions of the Salt Laws. I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man's standpoint. As the Independence movement is essentially for the poorest in the land, the beginning will be made with this evil.”
—Gandhi in a letter to the Viceroy, warning of his plans of civil disobedience
Jinnah and the Two State Solution
Another important figure in the Indian independence movement was Mohammad Ali Jinnah, a powerful Muslim leader who is credited with the creation of Pakistan. He joined the Indian National Congress in 1906 and was originally an advocate for a unified India. He was a leader of the Muslim League, a specifically Muslim independence group, and helped maintain relations between the two political groups early on. Jinnah looked to protect the rights of Muslims within an Indian state.
Over the years, Jinnah’s position toward the creation of India began to change. In 1940, Jinnah and the Muslim League advocated the Lahore Resolution. This resolution supported a two-state solution in which there would be two separate independent states, one Hindu and one Muslim. The idea was first introduced in 1930, but only began to gain popularity at this time. This concept was in contrast to what Gandhi and Nehru wanted: they both supported a unified Indian state. Rising tensions between Hindus and Muslims and tensions over this issue led to violence breaking out all over India in 1946. Although the Indian National Congress was strongly opposed to the two-state solution, it eventually gave in to avoid further violence and potential civil war. Partition and Population Migration In 1947, the British finally left the Indian subcontinent, and two nations were born. Pakistan celebrated independence on August 14, 1947, and India followed on the next day, August 15. Jawaharlal Nehru became Prime Minister in India, while in Pakistan, Jinnah became the head of state. Pakistan was made up of two parts on either side of India, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan. Pakistan was declared a Muslim state, while India, although predominantly Hindu, was declared a secular nation.
At the time of partition, many Hindus lived in the region that became Pakistan and many Muslims lived (and still live) in India. There was a mass population migration between the two countries that was marked by violence among those traveling in opposite directions. Many people died not only from the fighting, but from the difficulty of migrating. Millions of people traveled across the borders. Unfortunately, the two governments were not prepared for the size of the migration and the violence that accompanied it. This violence only set the stage for a future of troubled relations between the two newly formed nations.
Kashmir and Jammu
The split between India and Pakistan was mainly based on the religion of people in an area and major geographic dividing lines, such as rivers or mountains. About half of the subcontinent was directly ruled by the British and was divided in this fashion. However, the other half was made up of small states ruled by princes that were controlled by the British and directly governed by Maharajas. These Maharajas had the option to become part of India or Pakistan. For most, this was a simple decision based on religion and location. The state of Kashmir and Jammu was the exception. This region was located at the border of India and Pakistan. A Hindu Maharaja, Hari Singh, ruled it, but the population was mostly Muslim. Leaders of both India and Pakistan wanted Kashmir and Jammu to be part of their respective nations, yet Hari Singh was reluctant to join either, due to the delicate situation. If he joined Pakistan, he feared violence and discrimination against the Hindu minority. If he joined India, he was sure of a retaliation of the Muslim majority and thus, either way, ending in violence.
CURRENT SITUATION
Soon after independence, Muslims began an uprising within Kashmir with the support of Pakistani tribesmen. Many believed that these fighters were backed by the government of Pakistan, but there was a lack of clear evidence to support the claim. India and Pakistan had signed a non-intervention agreement concerning Kashmir, and becoming involved would have broken the agreement. Hari Singh requested armed assistance from India, but India would only act following Kashmir’s accession. Given this situation, Singh formally joined Kashmir to India in October 1947. Both Pakistan and India decided to confirm the accession by referendum after the threat to the region had passed.
Once Singh signed the document acceding Kashmir to India, Indian forces entered Kashmir to claim and secure the region. The Indian Army made substantial progress against the revolutionaries and tribesmen, gaining control of much of the region. On December 31st 1947, India formally appealed for UN involvement. In January 1948, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 39, setting up a committee of three members to help resolve the crisis and provide a recommendation to the Security Council. The USSR's influence on the final outcome of the conflict remains ambiguous, because of their abstention during the vote for Resolution 39.
It is now the 31st of March 1948. The Indian Army continues to make progress against insurgents in Kashmir. Pakistan argues that Singh’s title as a Maharaja was simply an appointment of the British, and therefore he does not have the authority to decide Kashmir’s fate and call in the Indian Army. Pakistan has still not officially entered the conflict, although it is widely believed to be providing support to the opposition. The conflict has now lasted over six months, leading to significant civilian casualties, instability in the region and increasingly poor relations between the two South Asian neighbors. The international community is looking to the UN Security Council to take action.
INDO-PAKISTANI WAR OF 1947
The dispute between India and Pakistan is now officially called the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. After the decision by the British to split the colony of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Dominion of India, mass migration between the two territories, due to religion, sparked violence between both migrating groups. With the princely states advised to join either Pakistan or India, all regions of former colonial India, except for Kashmir and Jammu have done so. Due to the instability of both Dominions, British officers stayed in military positions after their creation. To put pressure on Hari Singh, Pakistan stopped all export of salt, sugar and petrol. In order to keep the peace, British military officers have thus far, convinced both governments to stay as defensive as possible. The British officers have been communicatingbetween Pakistan and India daily. During March of 1948, the conflict continues. All the while, the Dominion of India is slowly bringing parts of Kashmir and Jammu under its control; yet violence in the region does not seem to come to an end.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CREATING A RESOLUTION
When writing a resolution, delegates should be reminded that they are representing their country’s policies as of 31 March 1948. If delegates choose to act differently than what happened, history will take an unknown, but hopefully better course than what it did.
The war in Kashmir and Jammu is still taking place. The only resolution passed by the Security Council is Resolution 39. Even with only one resolution dealing with the issue, many important steps have already been taken. The creation of the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan could prove to be the most important party for a potential ceasefire. The resolutions drafted and debated, should incorporate and build on measures taken previously.
Moreover, the resolution should deal with the situation of India, Pakistan and Kashmir–as comprehensively as possible. Delegates need measures in order to deal with the dire situation in the region. This will not only be a simple matter of defining frontiers: innocent lives are involved and must be protected.
In conclusion, delegates should expect to draft a resolution that discusses and works to incorporate the various actors in the conflict. Not only should it deal with the current situation on the ground, but also the political implications, humanitarian implications and potential consequences that may arise from the proposed policies and solutions.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:
1. Is your country a former colony? Does it have colonies? How does this affect your perspective on India and Pakistan?
2. Does the United Kingdom, as the former colonial master of India and Pakistan, have any responsibility in their futures?
3. What responsibility do nations have for revolutionaries and militias operating from their territory?
4. Can action be taken without damaging more people’s lives? On the other hand, can inaction be accepted?
RESEARCH AID
The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations website is a good source of informationon all peacekeeping missions, past and present.
• UNDPKO:
The CIA’s World Factbook is a good source for encyclopedic information on countries. By looking at the pages for both India and Pakistan, you can glean important information about each one’s history as it relates to this issue.
• The World Factbook:
The United Nations and Decolonization website has information related to decolonization, including relevant historic documents.
• United Nations and Decolonization:
REFERENCES
Sources and Useful Articles
United Nations Report
Pakistan%20question.pdf
Background on the Conflict
FAQ’s on Kashmir
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Map of the Region of Kashmir