27 – 29 May 2010, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Historical knitwear of Zagreb museums
Vesna Marija Potočić Matković1, Alenka Pavko Čuden2
1 Faculty of Textile Technology, Prilaz b. Filipovića 28a, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
2 Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Aškerčeva cesta 12, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract: There is much high quality research into the history of dress. Unfortunately, the history of knitted garments is very poorly represented in these works and existing research focuses much more on the history of hand knitting. Museum collections have rarely preserved knitwear and concentrate on woven clothing. Therefore, it will be interesting to see the knitted objects in the Zagreb museums. The technical parameters of the museum objects were obtained by measurements and when this was not possible, by observation. The basic details of the historical knits, such as horizontal and vertical density, were measured. By referring to the horizontal density and structure of the particular knitwear, the gauge of the knitting machine was estimated. Based on all known parameters, we formalised conclusions about the possible types of knitting machines upon which the specific knitwear items could have been manufactured.
Keywords: knitwear, history of dress, museum, collection
1 Introduction
There have been numerous studies into the history of textile and clothing design, often within the broader context of social evolution. Regardless of the number of books published on this subject, there is a paucity of literature dealing with the history of knitted clothes. The history of knitted garments is very poorly represented in research and researches carried out, on the history of knitting are more focused on hand knitted garments. Knitting is so undervalued, that richly illustrated histories of dress may not include a single knitted item.
Owing to a lack of literature covering the history of knitting, there is need further to research this area. Preserved specimens of knitted fabrics in private, or museum, collections can help, in addition to manufacturers’ catalogues, historical fashion magazines and similar. We must put the question, “..how does preserved knitwear reflect the taste of the time?”. Some fabrics have been preserved in private and museum collections by coincidence and may not reflect broader tastes and manufacturing/technological capabilities of the time. It is possible that knitted garments be preserved in such small quantities to give a true picture of fashion changes, but they can still be scrutinised. We may assume that knitted clothes featured in 20th century fashion magazines, can provided a better picture of the tastes and the production techniques of the time. In contrast, photographs and drawings, often provide far less information about knitted fabric than preserved clothing items. Therefore, it is vital to present each preserved knitted item, such that the complete historical portrait of the knitting may be obtained.
In this paper, knitwear within the Museum of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb and the Zagreb City Museum is presented. The Museum of Arts and Crafts was founded on the 17th February 1880, as one of the first institutions of its kind in Europe. It was founded on the initiative of the Art Society, with the intention to create a "collection of samples for master craftsmen and artists, who need to re-promote the production of items of everyday use" [1]. The basis of its work was directed towards the preservation of traditional values, national crafts and the creation of a new aesthetic, bourgeois social class. Today, the Museum of Arts and Crafts has the significance of the most important national museum, that has consistently documented the material culture of life, revealing everyday goings-on within Croatian nobility and bourgeoisie, during many centuries of Croatian history. With its rich holdings (more than 100,000 items), in which there are a considerable number of foreign produced items, the museum transcends national bias and makes a significant contribution within the wider European heritage. The Museum of Arts and Crafts preserves items of fine and applied arts within the period between 14th to 20th centuries. With a collection of textiles and fashion, the Museum has a collection of furniture, metal, ceramics, glass, painting, sculpture, clocks, photographs and photographic equipment, musical instruments, graphic and industrial designs, architecture, ivory, printing, painted and printed leather, smoking accessories and toys [1].
The Zagreb City Museum was founded by the Brethren of the Croatian Dragon Society in 1907. The exhibition shows the past of the City of Zagreb, from prehistory through to the present day. The permanent exhibition gives a portrait of the city in all of its aspects, showing it in the light of politics, the Church, history, economics business, town planning and architecture, the history of art and literature, entertainment, and everyday life [2]. The forty five themes, in an interesting and thoroughly historically documented manner, constitute a sequence of characteristic topics and events, creating an image of the city throughout its historical and cultural development. Each period is illustrated with charismatic objects that give a vivid portrait of Zagreb, starting from the legend about the origin of the name of the city, progressing to life in medieval Gradec, to the rich Baroque period. Then comes commercial life in the lower city, at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, followed by the time of the Croatian National Revival in Zagreb. The Museum has reconstructed shops in Ilica street and recreated the feel of everyday life in this most important commercial street, at the end of the 19th century. More images show the 20th century in characteristic entries, giving an interpretation of the most important events that have typified this stormy period [2]. Naturally, the Museum preserves and exhibits an array of clothing (and knitted) items, which testify to the style of dress and fashion in Zagreb. The Ethnographic Museum in Zagreb has knitted items (mostly socks) of national handicrafts, but national handicrafts will not be the topic of this article.
2 METHOD USED
With an historic knitted garment, we have to determine first the period in which it was made, then whether it is actually the original or not, what is its origin, does it conform to the style, or manufacture, of other items placed in that period, etc. It is necessary to ask the question, “..what is the purpose of the item, was it widely used, or designed for a separate occasion, is the producer a skilled workman and how can this item testify generally about the skills, technical achievements and style of knitwear of the time?”
Further information about the museum knitwear was collected by the method of measurement and, when this was not possible otherwise, visual observation. The basic parameters of the historical knitted fabrics, such as horizontal and vertical density were measured. According to the horizontal density and the type of the pattern, the gauge of the machine upon which the individual knitwear was knitted was estimated. As the museum objects were preserved in the best possible condition, it was impossible to unravel them, so determining classic yarn fineness the yarn fineness was determined by observation. Observation is an irreplaceable instrument for collecting data when it is impossible to conduct different kinds of (potentially destructive) testing, which museums prohibit. Therefore the yarn fineness is determined by observation, as was the form of structure of the knitwear. Based on all known parameters, we came to calculated conclusions on the possible types of knitting machines upon which specific items of knitwear could have been knitted.
3 HISTORICAL KNITWEAR
A selection of knitted items was made, in order to obtain a chronological viewpoint. Certain types of garments were particularly important during certain periods of the development of knitting.
3.1 Liturgical gloves
Liturgical gloves are the oldest knitted items that appear in this paper. Liturgical gloves are mentioned already in the books dating from the 12th century and until the14th century, all bishops wore them as a symbol of purity. All are hand knitted, usually from white silk but there are also red, blue, purple, green examples [3]. Sometimes they are knitted from linen, or wool yarn [4].
Figure 1: Liturgical gloves, around 1600. Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts
They can be found in museums and church treasuries throughout Europe. It is not known where they were made, but considering the similarity of knitted samples, they probably originated from specialised workshops [3]. Liturgical gloves from the Museum of Arts and Crafts are from the white silk and gilt yarn. Of course, the gloves are hand knitted very precisely, in a large horizontal density 8 stitches per centimetre and a vertical density of 10 stitches per centimetre. The gloves were made at the end of the 16th or early 17th century (Fig. 1). The gloves are knitted in single Jacquard pattern.
3.2 Fine women stockings of 19th century
During the 19th century, society’s consumer base increased, women were able to have a number of socks in the dressing room and able to match the colour of socks and dresses. Technology of sock knitting developed simultaneously with the general progress of technology and industry. In 1864 very precise (24 gauge) Cotton machines were developed, which had the ability to create fully-fashioned (tailored) parts of clothing (mostly stockings) with firm edge [5]. Fashion of colour matching of skirt and stockings was encouraged by the tendency of crinoline steel supports, to swing and reveal the stockings. Newly discovered chemical dyes enabled the production of socks in a clear pink, green, plum, chestnut, grey, blue, red and black colour. Well coordinated technology and fashion development did encourage new designs. The Hosiery industry introduced a number of styles, colours and materials.
On Figures 2 and 3, there are a couple of attractive women's stockings. According to the time when they were made, stitch density and shaped fabric with firm edge, it may be concluded that they were knitted on flat, probably Cotton, machines. Stockings in Fig. 2 are simple, white, cotton with floral print, with the estimated time of production the end of the 19th century. Stockings are knitted from fine, single cotton yarn, in fineness around 15 tex, while the toes, heels and feet were knitted from a bit coarser yarn. Horizontal density of fabrics is 15 stitches per centimetre, vertical 16 stitches per centimetre. Considering solid edge and the back seam it can be concluded that the stockings were knitted on a Cotton machine. Stockings on Fig. 3 are silk, hand-embroidered items, made in Paris in the second half of the 19th century. The horizontal density is 16 stitches per centimetre, vertical 18 stitches per centimetre. They also have back seam and are probably also knitted on a Cotton machine. Both pairs of socks are kept in the Museum of Arts and Crafts.
With a number of machine-knitted socks, the Museum also preserves a number of fine hand-knitted socks from a similar period. One of the hand-knitted socks is shown in Fig. 4. Presented socks are a bit rougher then machine knitted stockings, in horizontal density of 7,5 stitches per centimetre and vertical 11 stitches per centimetre. They are knitted from cotton yarn in fineness of 15x2 tex. The upper edge is decorated in elegant, structural and open-work Jacquard. The monogram is embroidered.
Figure 2: Cotton stockings with floral print, end of 19th century. Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts / Figure 3: Silk, hand embroidered stockings, second half of 19th century. Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts / Figure 4: Fine hand knitted socks, second half of 19th century. Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts3.3 Fine women gloves on the beginning of 20th century
Cotton machines were also used to knit high quality and well-designed gloves of delicate patterns. We can select long open-work cotton gloves, machine knitted around 1900. (Figure 5). They are from cotton yarn in a fineness of about 25 tex, knitted in the horizontal density of 13 stitches per centimetre, and vertical density of 18 stitches per centimetre. Fashion is formed in the process of knitting, so the gloves have only one seam on the outside and with each finger, which indicates a Cotton machine. On the Fig. 6, there are long cotton gloves, machine knitted around 1900. Unlike the previous gloves, shape is cut and sewn. They are knitted in a very fine horizontal density of 18 stitches per centimetre and a vertical of 30 stitches per centimetre. The third example are black, cotton, open-work gloves, machine-knitted around 1915. (Figure 7).
Figure 5: White cotton open-work gloves, around 1900. Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts / Figure 6: Long cotton gloves, around 1900. Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts / Figure 7: Black cotton open-work gloves, around 1915. Zagreb Museum of Arts and Crafts3.4 Swimming costumes
During the late 19th century, both men and women at sea were wearing swimming costumes that consist of an upper part with short sleeves, skirt and knee-long lower part. Men's swimwear was the first to discard the skirt. Women's costumes were often made of the woven fabric [6].
Circular knitting machines at the second half of the 19th century were able to knit quality knitted fabric. Circulars were faster than the flat machines and they already allowed the mass production of fabrics for underwear and outerwear, as well as swimwear. Such machines did allow increasing popularity of underwear and knitted clothes, including knitted swimsuits.