Greece and Persia at the beginning of the 5th century BC
Athens
At the beginning of the 5th century, most of Greece was made up of city states. A city state was a large city controlling the countryside and towns around it. The reason for this is that Greece is very mountainous, so it was difficult to achieve any unity between the regions. The mountains also made defence much easier.
Athens was the largest of the city states. It controlled the region called Attica.
Naval power
Because of its proximity to the sea, Athens became the major naval power in Greece. In 493 BC Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to move their fleet from Phaleron to Piraeus, where there were three naturally defended harbours. He also persuaded them to fortify Piraeus from the landward side, to protect the fleet. (Later Athens built the Long Walls, linking the city with Piraeus, 12 kilometres away. These walls meant the city could not be cut off from its fleet by a besieging army.)
Government
Athens was also transforming itself into the world’s first democracy. In 508/7 BC, Cleisthenes introduced economic and political reforms that began this transformation.
· The key institution of political power was the Ekklesia (assembly). Any male citizens over 18 could participate in the Ekklesia, which met 40 times a year. It proposed, debated and passed laws, and also elected all government officials. Any citizen could turn up to meetings of the Ekklesia and take part in its proceedings.
· The Boule was a council of 500 members, chosen by lot (i.e. randomly) from the citizenry. It controlled the city’s finances, and prepared motions to be voted on by the Ekklesia.
· The nine archons were were responsible for the day-to-day running of the city. They were elected for one year by the Ekklesia, but could only be from the richest classes in society.
· The Areopagus was made up of all the ex-archons. It ensured that all actions were legal under the constitution.
· The ten strategoi (generals), were responsible for the army and navy. They were elected by the Ekklesia, but could hold office any number of times.
· Finally, members of the Dikasteria (the courts) were selected from citizens over the age of 30.
Sparta
Unlike the other Greek states, Sparta did not have a large capital city. It was an agrarian society, with all land being owned by the state and worked by state-owned slaves. Each Spartan citizenwas allocated a plot of land and a group of slaves (helots) to work it. The citizens themselves did not work.
Military power
All male adult citizens (Spartiates) served in the army on a full-time basis. They lived together in barracks, and trained daily for war. This professional army made Sparta the major land power in Greece. It is estimated that there were about 5,000 men in the Spartan army at the time of the Persian Wars. Sparta did not have a navy of any significance.
Government
The Spartan political system was a mixture of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy.
· The two kings were the monarchical element. They had responsibility for the army, public roads and religious affairs.
· The Gerousia (Council of Elders) was the oligarchic element. It consisted of the two kings plus 28 citizens of noble birth who were elected by the citizens. It advised the other branches of government, and acted as a court of criminal justice.
· The five Ephors were the democratic element, as they were elected by the citizens of Sparta. They served for a single year, and were responsible for the day-to-day running of the state. Re-election was not possible.
Persia
The Persian Empire (known at the time as the Achaemanid Empire) was founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC, and was the largest empire of the ancient world. It controlled everything between Macedonia and Egypt in the west to the Indus River (in modern-day Pakistan). The population of the empire at the time of the Persian Wars is estimated to have been 50 million – at least ten times that of Greece.
Military power
At the heart of the Persian army were the 10,000 Immortals – heavily armed infantry. They were supported by lightly armed units from all over the Empire, as well as cavalry. Up until the end of the 6th century, the Persians had almost no navy. However, as they conquered the Greek city states of Asia Minor, they began construction of a significant naval force. Most of their naval personnel were Greek, Phoenician or Egyptian.
Government
Persia was an absolute monarchy, with all power resting in the hands of Great King. He ruled the empire via local administrators known as satraps. These satraps had a significant amount of autonomy, but had to provide tax revenue to the Great King, and troops when required. Royal inspectors toured the Empire to ensure that the satraps carried out their duties properly.
Other achievements
The Persians built a 2,500 kilometre highway across their empire and used a single language for communication. They also established a postal system. These developments, plus their willingness to coopt local people to administer cities and regions, enabled them to control a vast empire. (Unlike the Romans, who could use the Mediterranean as their central transportation system, the Persians had to travel across their empire by land.)
The Persians had one of the first religions based around one all powerful god, but were tolerant of other religions and cultures. (Their religion, Zoroastrianism, was not monotheistic, but had one dominant god, Ahuramazda, who gradually supplanted the other deities.) They were also one of the first civilisations to abolish slavery.
1