The U.S. didn’t recognize U.S.S.R. until 1933, 16 years after the successful Bolshevik Revolution
The U.S. and Great Britain refused to open a second front to relieve entrenched Soviets in Stalingrad
The U.S. and Great Britain refused to share nuclear technology with Soviets (an obvious demonstration of a lack of trust)
The U.S. refused Lend-Lease (approx. $6 billion) to Russia, while continuing pledge of support to G.B.
Soviet-German non-aggression pact
Russia wanted to protect its western front against any future aggression—wanted a buffer zone
Tacit alliance of convenience between the Allies, only for the purpose of victory
“The Beginning”: The Yalta Conference
Big Three meet in Yalta to decide postwar plans for Europe
Stalin/Soviet Russia promises
Free elections and representative government (against Communist ideology) in Poland and other eastern European countries.
Soviets granted privileges in Manchuria, allowing for Communist handhold in China
Stalin quickly broke all promises, enacting brutal martial law in controlled territories
Containing Communism: The Ideology
George Kennan states new American foreign policy “contain Communism” within current borders
Truman, as president, adopts policy as a central tenant of domestic and foreign policy—entitled containment policy as “Truman Doctrine”
Marshall Plan: The Economics
Advocated by George C. Marshall, intended to relieve postwar Western Europe with funding
In conjunction with Truman Doctrine, considered a very effective means to control Communism
Underlying principle behind the Berlin Airlift, the airdrop of supplies to Soviet blockaded West Berlin
NATO: The Muscle
U.S. joined allies G.B., France, and others to combat Communism by building a defensive military (by 1955, 15 countries had joined)
Allies joined for mutual protection—if one were attacked by a Communist nation, NATO forces would retaliate
Soviet countries formed own alliance—Warsaw Pact
Results of Cold War militarism
Armed aggression of world powers
Polarization in international affairs—either in support of the West (all that is good, true, free, etc) or the Commies (the evil empire in the east
Carving up of world into spheres of influence—the “new” imperialism
Cold War Hot Spots
The Forgotten War: Korea (1950-53)
Background
Russian and American troops withdrew from Korean Peninsula to allow self-determination
Both sides left weapons stores
Both sides left warring factions (Northern—Communist//Southern—Democratic)
Hostilities flare
Communist North Korean forces invade in June, 1950—nearly reaching Southern city of Pusan
Truman issues NSC-68, ordering defense spending to mobilize for war in Korea
Cites inactivity of League of Nations
Recognizes role of U.S. as a world leader
Influences UN (of which U.S.S.R. was not a member) to declare N. Korea the aggressor
Called (through UN Security Council) for troops to be sent under Gen. MacArthur
Stalemate in Korea
Although MacArthur promised an immediate and rapid victory, fighting “see-sawed” across the 38th parallel toward China
Chinese Communists supported N. Korea and pushed UN forces back
Despite the recommendations of advisors, Truman refuses to fully engage the military—unwilling to plunge the world again into large-scale war
Earned the criticism and public scorn of MacArthur, who soon gets fired for insubordination
Peace talks stall after failure to resolve prisoner dispute
Shifting Policies: A New Foreign Policy
Under Eisenhower presidency, articulated by John Foster Dulles
Amplified “containment” policy to state that Communism would be fought with nuclear bombs, dropped by Strategic Air Command (the center for nuclear preparedness)
At the Geneva Conferences, Eisenhower unsuccessfully attempts to thaw Cold War in meetings with Soviet Premier Nikita Kruschev
Following a Hungarian Revolt against Soviet oppression (brutally suppressed by the Red Army), U.S. refuses to aid Hungarian rebels, raising anti-Americanism
In general, Dulles “domino theory” and appeal to nuclear retaliation was false
U.S. refused to intervene in Hungary
U.S. refused to intervene against Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam (who was quickly beginning a Communist revolution in N. Vietnam, spreading to the South)
Eisenhower characterized by a lack of decisive response—reluctant to draw the U.S. into protracted battles (in hindsight, a nice idea)
The West and the Middle East
Background
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the U.S. and Great Britain try and maintain a strong foothold in the Middle East—for oil
In response to the Holocaust and increasing pressure from western Jews (in America and liberated Europe), the UN carves the State of Israel
With American and British/UN funding and arms, Israeli territory is acquired from Palestinian Arabs
Causes dissension/tension throughout the Arab Middle East—considered an act of imperialism
Cold War Hotspots in the Middle East
Iran
CIA attempts to engineer a coup in Iran to secure American oil interests
The U.S. installs the Shah as a western sympathetic leader (think puppet government)
Results:
Increase of anti-Americanism in the M.E.
Assumption that American involvement=nation-building/imperialism
Increased factionalism in Iran, ultimately resulting in the Iranian Revolution and the coup of Ayatolleh Khomeni
Egypt/Suez Crisis
Egyptian President Nasser appeals for financial aid to build a dam and canal across the Nile River
Nasser flirts with Soviets in order to get backing, forcing Americans to withdraw their offer of aid
Without funding from either side, Nasser forced to nationalize the dam, costing Egyptian government a ton of money
Oct. 1956—British, French, and Israeli forces attack Egypt in order to gain control of Suez, and all oil passing through canal
Results
Invasion backfired, because the U.S. was not fully informed
British, French, and Israeli forces banked on U.S. support and oil
Eisenhower, upset, refused to send support and oil
Egypt retained control of Suez, and consequently, the flow of Middle Eastern oil to the West
OPEC
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Created to prevent further “western imperialism”
As an economic alliance, OPEC is able to set prices for oil—is highly influential in controlling the outflow of oil to all oil-dependent countries (which is most of the world)
Includes Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela
Cuban Missile Crisis
Background
Increasing civil unrest and resentment toward U.S. for not providing equal financial aid to Latin America (as to Europe)
Increasing dependence on American investment devastated local economies
The Cuban Revolution
Fidel Castro (with the help of Che Guevara) overthrow American puppet president Batista
Castro began land re-distribution (the so-called Robin Hood approach) taking land from American sugar-owners
Soviet Involvement
Kruschev promised financial and military support
Kruschev sent missiles to Cuba, to help “protect” Cuba from American imperialism
Gross disregard of Roosevelt Corollary and the Monroe Doctrine
Failed Coups
Despite several attempts to assassinate Castro, the American government threatened nuclear retaliation if missiles are not immediately removed (failed Bay of Pigs invasion)
“Thirteen Days”—diplomatic standstill between Russia and U.S., with both sides threatening the use of nuclear weapons
Russia blinked, removes troops, and agreed to relax nuclear arms preparedness
Vietnam
Background
After the French withdrew (abandoned) Vietnam during the early 1950s, the country was plunged into civil war
U.S. backed the shaky and corrupt Diem regime
Ho Chi Minh, with the support of Communist China and Soviet Russia, organized Viet Cong movement
JFK sent U.S. troops, dubbed “Military Advisors” (to placate American public and Congress, meet commitment to contain Communism, provide foreign aid)
Gulf of Tonkin (1964)
According to CIA and American military forces, N. Vietnamese forces fired on American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin
Considered an act of war, although later evidence suggested that it was an excuse to commit further resources to Vietnam conflict
Pres. Johnson received full authorization to protect American interests and fully engage military in Vietnam—Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Considered the benchmark of American engagement in Vietnam Conflict
Tet Offensive (1968)
Named for the siege/attack on Khe Sanh on Vietnamese New Year
Began the counter-offensive of Communist N. Vietnam
With massive retaliation, American forces were crippled
Caused public outcry and demonstrations against the savagery of the N. Vietnamese and the inadequate leadership of Gen. Westmoreland and Pres. Johnson
Considered the benchmark for anti-war protests and the end of public support for the war
Johnson refused to commit more troops and withdrew his nomination from the presidential race
The Nixon Doctrine and Vietnamization
After four years of see-saw battling and guerilla warfare, new President Nixon called for new American strategy—Vietnamization
Slow withdrawal of American forces from Vietnam
Vietnam expected to shoulder the burden of its own civil war
My Lai Massacre (1968)—further divided America, after American troops massacred fleeing women and children in the village of My Lai
Indicated the savagery of the war
The difficulty in discerning enemy from ally
Cambodia—U.S. military used neighboring Cambodia as a staging arena for Vietnamese invasion, resulting in a multi-year massacre and civil war in Cambodia
Protests:
Kent State University (1970)—federal troops called to quell social protest, resulting in the killing of several protestors
Berkeley—Vietnam protests brought together the disparate groups of Feminists, Black Panthers, war protestors, Civil Rights activists, etc—became the center of social liberalism
False promises of de-militarization resulted in political scandal for Nixon in 1973 (against War Powers Act, and consistent with the pressure of Watergate scandal)
The Fall of Saigon (1975) and the end of the Vietnam “War”
April, 1975, N. Vietnamese and Viet Cong push south toward Saigon, besieging the city
Forced an emergency evacuation of the American embassy (where numerous S. Vietnamese allies begged for help)
Resulted in the full and undignified withdrawal of American forces in U.S.
Domestic Policy in the 1950s
The Second Red Scare
Background
Historical precedent of ferreting out dissidents to ensure and promote national security
Marshall Palmer raids of the 1920—to eliminate Communist sympathizers
Alien and Sedition Acts (1790s)—to eliminate political competition (targeted Jeffersonian Republicans) and restricted immigration from France
Smith Act (1940)—first peace-time sedition law
Following the “betrayal” of the Soviets following the Potsdam Conference (where Russia backs out of all agreements, including the partition of Europe, free elections, etc)
Hoped to control the spread of radical/dangerous ideas
The Red Scare
The Loyalty Review Board
Investigated the federal government, focusing on 3 million employees
Attorney General drew up a list of suspected Communist organization, totaling over 90 groups
HUAC—House of Un-American Activities
Started in 1938 to investigate subversive activity, this committee came gained new/unprecedented authority in the 1940s-50s
Investigations led by Joseph McCarthy (WI), lending the term “McCarthyism” and Richard Nixon
Prosecuted thousands of people, at all social and professional levels: including prominent actors, businessmen/women, Senators, and the military
Successful investigations required that the prosecuted “give names” of suspected Communists
Successfully prosecuted Alger Hiss (for selling atomic secrets) and the Rosenbergs (also for selling atomic secrets
Ended when McCarthy accused high-ranking government officials and generals of being suspected Communists—investigations petered out (McCarthy died to complications of alcoholism)
Truman’s “Fair Deal”
After winning 1946 election (by a landslide against Dewey) proclaimed a “Fair Deal” for America
Included financial support for the poor
Development of land for housing/water
Improved housing
Full employment and higher minimum wage
Largely unsuccessful, due to log-jammed Congress
Only success in raising minimum wage
In collaboration with rising social problems in urban cities, and the white flight to the suburbs, resulted in increasing disenchanted minorities
Kennedy’s “New Frontier”
Elected in 1960, JFK brought youth and vitality to White House
Domestic programs of “New Frontier” were opposed
The Birth of the Civil Rights Movement
Ending Jim Crow Laws
Plessy v. Ferguson (1886)—Landmark case constitutionally supporting the idea of “separate but equal”
Became the bases for segregation—black and white could be separated as long as both had access to the same stuff
Allowed for separate facilities, including restaurants, bathrooms, and schools (and inherently poorer ones) throughout the South, where it was most prevalent
Jim Crow Laws passed by legislatures in most Southern states following Reconstruction
Along with sharecropping, meant to continue to shackle the African-American labor force and reinforce Americanism
Enforced by vigilante groups, the KKK, a lack of access to education, economics, poverty, and tradition
Ike and the Warren Court
Although from Missouri, Truman was scandalized by the poor treatment of blacks throughout the South, particularly veterans of WWI
Although Ike attempted to de-segregate the military, Ike didn’t continue civil rights bills
Warren, as Chief Justice, used Supreme Court to challenge Jim Crow
Passed Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
Reversed Plessy v. Ferguson decision
Ruled that separate institutions are inherently unequal, and thus, unconstitutional
Forced integration of public institutions, although most Southern states refused to comply and required federal troops to facilitate integration
Little Rock Nine—Nine black students prohibited by Arkansas National Guard (under orders from Gov. Faubus) from attending Central High School
Eisenhower sent troops to escort the students to school
Became the landmark indication that integration was going to happen
Collective Action
Civil Rights Act (1957)—First Congressional act since Reconstruction: set up Civil Rights Commission to monitor and regulate civil rights
24th Amendment (1964)—Ends poll tax, allows for universal free suffrage
Voting Rights Act of 1965—Ends racial discrimination at the polls
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)—led by Martin Luther King, Jr.
