The Guyana Story
(From Earliest Times to Independence)
By Dr. Odeen Ishmael
© 2005 - Odeen Ishmael
Contents
THE EARLY AMERINDIAN SETTLEMENTS......
THE LATER AMERINDIAN SETTLEMENTS......
MAIN AMERINDIAN GROUPS UP TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY......
THE FATE OF OTHER AMERINDIAN GROUPS......
THE ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS IN THE GUYANA REGION......
RALEIGH'S FIRST EXPEDITION TO GUYANA......
RALEIGH'S SECOND EXPEDITION TO GUYANA......
EARLY DUTCH EXPLORATION......
EARLY DUTCH SETTLEMENTS......
THE DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY......
TREATY OF MUNSTER......
THE BEGINNING OF THE COLONY OF BERBICE......
A NEW CHARTER FOR BERBICE......
EXTENT OF DUTCH SETTLEMENT......
INVASIONS OF GUYANA (1665-1712)......
THE BERBICE-SURINAME BOUNDARY......
DUTCH PROGRESS......
THE ARRIVAL OF LAURENS STORM VAN GRAVESANDE......
DUTCH PROGRESS IN MAZARUNI AND CUYUNI......
SPANISH RAIDS ON DUTCH TERRITORY (1758-1768)......
FURTHER PROBLEMS WITH THE SPANIARDS......
RELIGION AMONG THE DUTCH IN GUYANA......
ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMERARA......
THE SLAVE TRADE......
SLAVERY ON THE PLANTATION......
THE WORK ON THE PLANTATION......
RELIGION OF THE SLAVES......
DUTCH CONTROL OF ESSEQUIBO......
THE BEGINNING OF THE BERBICE SLAVE REBELLION......
THE COLLAPSE OF THE REBELLION......
SPANISH IDEAS OF A WESTERN FRONTIER......
GUYANA UNDER BRITISH, FRENCH AND DUTCH (1781-1783)......
FROM DUTCH TO BRITISH HANDS (1783-1803)......
BERBICE AT THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY......
GROWTH OF GEORGETOWN......
THE BEGINNING OF BRITISH GUIANA......
CONTROL OF ESSEQUIBO AFTER 1750......
EARLY BRITISH ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS......
AMERINDIAN LOYALTY TO THE BRITISH......
THE ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENT IN BRITISH GUIANA......
RUMOURS OF FREEDOM......
THE DEMERARA SLAVE UPRISING......
THE END OF SLAVERY......
DAMON AND THE ESSEQUIBO REBELLION......
THE APPRENTICESHIP PERIOD......
THE ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESE......
CONSEQUENCES OF THE LABOUR SHORTAGE......
WEST INDIAN AND AFRICAN MIGRATION TO GUYANA......
THE ARRIVAL OF THE EAST INDIANS......
NEW INDIAN IMMIGRATION AFTER 1845......
THE BEGINNING OF THE GUYANA-VENEZUELA BORDER DISPUTE......
THE GUYANA-SURINAME BORDER (1831-1899)......
THE VILLAGE MOVEMENT......
THE ARRIVAL OF THE CHINESE......
THE CHINESE ON THE PLANTATIONS......
THE WORK OF O TYE KIM......
THE "ANGEL GABRIEL" RIOTS OF 1856......
THE GROWTH OF EDUCATION BEFORE 1840......
EXPANSION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION (1844-1876)......
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CREOLESE LANGUAGE......
HARDSHIPS FACED BY THE INDIANS......
THE DES VOEUX LETTER......
RIOT AT DEVONSHIRE CASTLE......
INDIAN SETTLEMENTS......
THE CENT BREAD RIOTS......
DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT......
RESISTANCE TO TAXATION AT FRIENDSHIP......
BUILDING THE SEA DEFENCE AND DRAINAGE SYSTEM......
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT......
THE SURVEYS OF BROWN AND SAWKINS......
FURTHER CLAIMS BY VENEZUELA (1876-1890)......
THE EARLY PERIOD OF ROAD AND RAILWAY TRANSPORT......
ESTABLISHMENT OF A MONEY SYSTEM......
THE BEGINNING OF THE GOLD INDUSTRY......
GROWTH OF GEORGETOWN......
EARLY ADMINISTRATION OF NEW AMSTERDAM......
THE BEGINNING OF THE RICE INDUSTRY......
THE IMMIGRATION ORDINANCE OF 1891......
POLITICAL CHANGES (1891-1917)......
INDIAN SETTLEMENTS......
EARLY EDUCATION OF INDIANS......
EFFORTS OF CHRISTIAN CHURCHES TO CONVERT INDIANS......
AMERICAN INTERVENTION IN THE GUYANA-VENEZUELA BORDER DISPUTE......
ARBITRATION AGREEMENT BETWEEN GUYANA AND VENEZUELA......
THE ARBITRAL AWARD......
MARKING THE GUYANA-VENEZUELA BOUNDARY......
THE GUYANA-SURINAME BOUNDARY (1840-1926)......
DISTURBANCES AT PLANTATION FRIENDS......
SUGAR WORKERS' STRIKES IN 1905......
THE 1905 RIOTS......
LABOUR UNREST (1906-1910)......
THE LUSIGNAN RIOT IN 1912......
THE ROSE HALL DISTURBANCES IN 1913......
WORKERS' PROTESTS IN 1917......
HUBERT NATHANIEL CRITCHLOW: THE EARLY YEARS......
CRITCHLOW IN THE WORKERS' STRUGGLE......
GANDHI AND THE IMMIGRATION PROPOSALS......
CONTINUING EFFORTS TO REVIVE INDIAN IMMIGRATION......
THE RUIMVELDT SHOOTING IN 1924......
THE START OF THE BAUXITE INDUSTRY......
THE BOUNDARY WITH SURINAME: THE TRI-JUNCTION POINT......
THE BOUNDARY WITH SURINAME: THE DRAFT TREATY......
THE MARITIME BOUNDARY WITH SURINAME......
NEW CONSTITUTION OF 1928......
THE BEGINNING OF THE MPCA......
THE LEONORA DISTURBANCES......
THE MOYNE COMMISSION......
THE EARLY YEARS OF AVIATION......
THE WORLD'S MOST FAMOUS STAMP......
GUYANA DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR......
THE BOOKERS EMPIRE......
DR. GIGLIOLI AND THE FIGHT AGAINST MALARIA......
CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES (1941-1947)......
CHEDDI JAGAN 'S ENTRY INTO POLITICS......
THE POLITICAL AFFAIRS COMMITTEE......
THE PAC AND THE 1947 ELECTIONS......
THE FORMATION OF THE GIWU......
THE ENMORE MARTYRS......
THE VENN COMMISSION......
SOME EVENTS OF 1947-1949......
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PPP......
APPOINTMENT OF THE WADDINGTON COMMISSION
THE REPORT OF THE WADDINGTON COMMISSION......
THE PPP IN 1951-1952......
THE DUNCE MOTION......
THE ELECTION CAMPAIGN IN 1953......
THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1953......
THE PPP GOVERNMENT OF 1953......
THE OVERTHROW OF THE PPP GOVERNMENT IN 1953......
THE BRITISH "CASE" FOR SUSPENDING THE CONSTITUTION......
THE PPP REBUTTAL OF THE BRITISH ACCUSATIONS......
AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN GUYANA IN 1953......
VISIT BY JAGAN AND BURNHAM TO ENGLAND AND INDIA -- 1953......
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INTERIM GOVERNMENT......
THE SPLIT IN THE TUC......
THE ROBERTSON COMMISSION......
REPRESSION AGAINST THE PPP - 1953-1955......
THE SPLIT IN THE PPP......
THE AFTERMATH OF THE SPLIT......
THE ALL-PARTY CONFERENCES......
FAILURE OF THE INTERIM GOVERNMENT......
THE SHOOTING AT SKELDON, 1957......
THE "ULTRA-LEFTIST" SPLIT - 1956......
THE 1957 GENERAL ELECTION......
THE PROGRAMME OF THE NEW PPP GOVERNMENT......
THE CONSTITUTIONAL COMMITTEE, 1958......
THE ORGANISATION OF THE PNC......
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED FORCE......
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ISSUES (1958-61)......
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE (1960)......
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN 1959-60......
THE ELECTIONS IN 1961......
BREWING ANTI-PPP CHALLENGES IN 1961......
THE JAGAN-KENNEDY MEETING......
THE 1962 BUDGET......
STREET PROTESTS BY THE OPPOSITION......
THE DISTURBANCES......
THE WYNN-PARRY COMMISSION......
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE IN 1962......
ATTEMPTS TO REACH A POLITICAL SOLUTION IN 1963......
THE 80-DAY STRIKE......
ANTI-GOVERNMENT VIOLENCE IN 1963......
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE IN 1963......
PROTESTS AGAINST THE SANDYS' "FORMULA"......
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN 1963......
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA......
RENEWAL OF VENEZUELAN CLAIM TO ESSEQUIBO......
THE OUTBREAK OF RACIAL DISTURBANCES IN 1964......
THE ESCALATION OF THE RACIAL DISTURBANCES......
MEDIATION BY GHANA AND TRINIDAD IN 1964......
JAGAN'S COALITION PROPOSALS......
BETRAYAL BY THE BRITISH LABOUR PARTY GOVERNMENT......
THE 1964 ELECTION CAMPAIGN......
THE DECEMBER 1964 ELECTIONS......
THE PNC-UF COALITION GOVERNMENT IN CONTROL......
THE ICJ MISSION......
EMERGENCY RULE IN 1965......
THE 1965 INDEPENDENCE CONFERENCE......
GOVERNMENT-OPPOSITION DISCUSSIONS ON THE BORDER ISSUE......
THE GENEVA AGREEMENT......
INDEPENDENCE GRANTED TO GUYANA......
GENERAL REFERENCES......
THE EARLY AMERINDIAN SETTLEMENTS
It is generally believed that Guyana's first inhabitants, the Amerindians, originally entered the territory of what is now known as Guyana about 11,000 years ago. Initially they lived on the low, swampy coastland region.
Much of the coastal plain was built up by alluvial deposits from the rising Atlantic Ocean during the period ranging from 17,000 to 6,000 years ago. Large rivers which were formed also brought huge deposits of silt from the conti-nental interior and dumped them into the ocean. These silt deposits formed part of the alluvium which helped to create the coastal plain. There were periods when the rising waters stabilised allowing mangrove forests to develop. As the waters rose at a later time, these forests were destroyed and were covered over with silt on which new forests grew during different periods. As the coastland built up, the sea retreated but left behind a series of parallel sand and shell beaches, now known as sand reefs, up to about 10 miles inland.
West of the EssequiboRiver, large pegasse (or peat) swamps were formed. Archaeological surveys in the region have unearthed evidence to show that the first people of Guyana formed settlements around some of these large pegasse swamps.
Research by the Guyanese anthropologist, Dennis Williams, shows that while the earliest Guyanese were hunters, about 7000 years ago they graduated to become hunter-gatherers. Some of these hunter-gatherers used a variety of plants to produce oils, fibres and dyes. These activities were the early horticultural experiments of the early inhabitants. Archaeological studies reveal that a group of these people occupied Barabina Hill near to Mabaruma around that period.
In the North-West District and the Pomeroon where they were firmly established as fish, turtle, snail and crab catchers, their settlements were more per-manent, but in the interior areas they moved their campsites from time to time. Some of these settlements were in the Mazaruni basin, the Pakaraima highlands, the Rupununi and the BerbiceRiver.
The tools of the hunter-gatherers included bedrock grinding surfaces which were used to make polished stone tools, bark beaters of chipped stone (used for extracting bark cloth), projectile points, chisels, axes, and adzes. These tools, no doubt, helped in creating the dug out canoe. Chipped quartz produced small tools such as scrapers and gouges. Bone was used for making awls, fish hooks and personal ornaments. Basketry skills were also developed and were used in the manufacture of fish traps and food containers.
The subsistence systems varied from region to region. In the south-west Rupununi, the hunter-gatherers were fishermen, while in the New River area they were collectors. However, their livelihood was affected by seasonal short-ages of the particular food resource.
Dennis Williams' studies reveal that in the North West District and Pomeroon, the diet of the early Amerindians consisted of fish, turtles, crabs, snails, a variety of wild animals, larvae of beetles that deposited their eggs in the eetay palm, wild cashew, eetay palm flour, and wild honey. Those who later lived in the savannahs hunted water-fowl, fish, turtle, cayman, deer, sloth and monkey. Many of these animals were trapped in isolated pools af-ter the rainy season. The eetay palm which also flourished in the savannahs pro-vided a type of flour. In the rain forest area, Amerindians lived on fish and wild animals; while near to the Brazil border wild nuts formed part of the diet.
THE LATER AMERINDIAN SETTLEMENTS
Beginning about 4,000 years ago, the riverbank areas were affected by severe droughts and, as the water levels in the rivers dropped, the salt water from the sea encroached further inland. Animals along many of the river banks migrated further inland to places with a steady fresh water supply. Human communities also moved to those areas, not only for fresh water, but also to follow the animal food supply. Dennis Williams' studies show that these droughts dried out many of the pegasse swamps in the North West District and the prolific growth of the eetay palm suffered as a result. The subsequent decline in the supply of starch forced the early people to look for alternatives in the higher regions. One of these alternatives was the cassava, and the domestication of this root vegetable saw the gradual establishment of permanent agricultural communities. The earliest of such settlements in the North West District were established around Hosororo and later in the ArukaRiver (in the North West District) about 3,000 years ago. But archaeological research has shown that Amerindian groups actually began living in those areas, though not on a permanent basis, from about 3,400 years ago
About 2,000 years ago, the first farming community appeared on the CorentyneRiver near to WonotoboFalls. Later, other communities developed on both banks. The district around Orealla began to be settled about 1,000 years ago. From this area there was a western expansion across the intermediate savannahs up to the DemeraraRiver.
Archaeologists have investigated a number of these settlement sites at Hitia (Berbice River), Tiger Island, Taurakuli and Doctor Ho Landing (Abary River); Idaballi, Karabu, Kibileri, Yamora, Barabara-Shanale, St. Francis and St Cuthbert's mission (Mahaicony and Mahaica Rivers); and Seba (Demerara River). Most of the people living in these areas were Arawaks but some were Warraus. The largest Arawak settlement was Abary village in the upper AbaryRiver which unfortunately now lies under the reservoir created by the Mahaica-Mahaicony-Abary (MMA) project in the 1970s.
When the Dutch came to Guyana they established plantations, forts and trading posts along the coastal rivers. Two well-known settlements at that time were Nibbi and Ouden Amen on the AbaryRiver. In the seventeenth century, this latter settlement was described as a village of 16 to 18 thatched houses, each large enough to accommodate four to six families. Nibbi was a trading post at the end of the sixteenth century; today it is identified (by Dennis Williams) as the settlement of Idaballi while Ouden Amen is now the settlement of Karabu. Plantation den Berg, established by the Dutch in the seventeenth century, has been identified as the site of Hitia on the BerbiceRiver.
Because of the swampy nature of the land, some Amerindian communities constructed huge earth mounds of over 20,000 square yards (18,000 square metres) about 2 metres above swamp level on which they built their houses. These houses, grouped together, were surrounded by wide ditches. Their agricultural plots were also created on similar types of mounds. Dennis Williams' studies, based on the evidence of ceramic patterns, indicate that an early form of this settlement was at Joanna, (in the Black Bush Polder area on the Corentyne), going back to about 1,500 years ago.
Probably because it was felt that it was too energy-consuming to maintain these mounds over a number of generations, settlements later graduated to the sand reefs which were themselves somewhat elevated over the swampy areas. The farm plots, on which cassava was the main crop, were kept on the swamp borders and also on clearings on the sand reefs, even though the latter areas possessed relatively poor soils. A series of settlements sprang up along these reefs from the Corentyne to the North West District.
Interior settlements began about 1,000 years ago with movements from the coastal areas, even though some other groups arrived from the Amazon region in the south. The Rupununi Savannahs began to be permanently peopled only from the early eighteenth century, even though hunter-gatherers had lived in that region a few thousand years earlier.
The adoption of the bitter cassava played a major role in Amerindian subsistence. Due to its lasting quality, it expanded the potential for travel and exploration. The cassava produced starch in the form of cassava bread, casreep (which acted as a preservative of meat), and farine (flour) - all of which could last for a relatively long period.
The development of cassava cultivation also helped in the growth of a technology associated with its processing. To this end, the stone grater, matapee (a basket work press to remove the cassava juice from the grated cassava) , sifter, ceramic griddles and containers were developed.
Settlements in the rain forest areas were not permanent since soil fertility was poor and there was need to move to new locations to farm. Shifting cultivation was also associated with shifting settlements.
Work was done collectively especially in forest clearing and house building, but specialisations in stone working, pottery, basket weaving and cane making did occur. Sexual division of labour also assisted in increased productivity.
The early Amerindians who lived on the riverbanks produced a wide variety of rock engravings and rock paintings. These engravings and paintings, depicting animal and plant resources, were begun by the hunter-gatherers, but they continued through succeeding generations. Some anthropologists suggest that these engravings and paintings represent the hunter-gatherer tradition of enumerating food items in order to ensure the replenishing of nature on which man's survival depends in marginal environments.
On the Berbice and CorentyneRivers a different type of rock engraving can be found. This is known as the Timehri engraving. This pattern of engraving shows a solitary costumed human figure and is the type which is dominant in parts of Amazonia.
MAIN AMERINDIAN GROUPS UP TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
By the nineteenth century, the principal Amerindian tribes inhabiting Guyana were the Caribs, the Akawois or Waikas, the Arawaks and the Warrous or Guaraunos. Interestingly, the Arawaks, Caribs and Akawois called themselves "Lokono", "Carinya" and "Kapohn", respectively - all meaning "the people" in their respective languages.
Among other tribes of less importance were the so-called Arawak-Akawois, or Wauwejans, who were considered descendants of both the former tribes, though distinct from each of them; the Magariouts, or Manoas, a powerful and warlike tribe dwelling in the region watered by the upper Essequibo and the Mazaruni; the Wai-Wais residing near the source of the Essequibo; the Patamonas (Paramonas) occupying the area of the Pakaraimas and Potaro River; and the Macushis and Wapisianas of the Rupununi area.
The Caribs and Akawois constantly raided the Wapisiana settlements, seizing many of these people to use as poitos (slaves). What precise localities the Wapisianas occupied is difficult to trace, but in the year 1833, when their numbers has become greatly reduced, they were found at the headwaters of the Essequibo.
Mention must also be made of the Arecunas and the Pancays who lived in the upper Cuyuni, and of the Pariacots who also possibly inhabited the same district.
1. The Caribs
Of all the tribes, by far the most numerous and powerful throughout the whole period of Dutch occupation of Guyana was the Carib nation, known as the warriors among the native inhabitants. In the later period, during the British occupation, though still claiming and receiving precedence among the Amerindians of British Guiana, their numbers had become greatly reduced and they were in some instances industrious cultivators of the soil. But in the early days of the colony, the Caribs, surpassing as they did all other tribes in personal bravery, were the great freebooters on the coast from Trinidad to the mouth of the Amazon. They were strong enough to control the waterway of the Orinoco, and they permanently occupied the lower portion of the right bank of the Orinoco as far as Barima. In the interior Guyana, they were found on the upper Essequibo, the Mazaruni, the upper Cuyuni, the Pomeroon and the Barima, and they moved freely through the forest region.