FASCISM AND FOOTBALL
Karen McCabe
201419333
Humanities and Social Sciences.
Department of History
University of Strathclyde
Philip Cooke
January 2016
QUESTION
How did Mussolini ‘use’ football to consolidate support for the Fascist regime?
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KAREN MCCABE………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Illustrationsp. 6
Introductionp. 8
Contextp. 9
Chapter 1 – Football: An Extension of Foreign Policyp. 11
Chapter 2 – Propaganda; The Subliminal Playmakerp. 17
Chapter 3 – Italianising Footballp. 22
Conclusionp. 26
Bibliographyp. 28
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1: ‘Notile Sovietiche, O Vincere O Morire’. 1938. Photograph:
Figure 2: Benito Mussolini (centre, in white) poses with the Italian team at the Palazzo Venezia in Rome following their success at the 1938 World Cup. Photograph: Staff/AFP/Getty Images
Figure 3: World Cup Final, Rome, Italy, Italy 2 v Czechoslovakia 1, 10th June, 1934, Referee Ecklind of Sweden with linesman Birlem of Germany and Ivancics of Hungary give the Nazi salute prior to kick-off
INTRODUCTION
Football, calcio, provided endless benefits for Mussolini’s Fascist regime prior to the emergence of the Second World War. Through effective propaganda, calcio installed nationalism that not only unified the nation of Italy, but also promoted Italian nationalism on the World stage, at a time of relentless hostility, particularly in a European context. This dissertation aims to determine how Mussolini used football in order to consolidate support for the Fascist regime, both nationally, and internationally. Moreover, this dissertation will examine how Mussolini restructured football, creating new leagues and regulations to Italianise the game, ultimately boasting the new found power that Italy had acquired, whilst determining whether this was made possible through infallible propaganda or simply the cooperation of a proud nation.
CONTEXT
Football is an excellent tool for promoting political interests to a large audience. “It was during the 1930s that football became politics.”[1]Mussolini was quick to realise just how effective it would be to exploit footballin Italy in order to increase support for the Fascist Party and prove the new-found power of Italy on the world stage. The proof of Italy’s importance was made clear with the successive victories at the 1934 and 1938 World Cups. The architecture, which was constructed in sight of hosting the 1934 World Cup, acted effectively as propaganda for the regime. Mussolini and his Fascist party essentially remade football “into an extension of Fascist policy.”[2] In order to understand Italian football, it must be viewed within Italian society. The role that football had within this context is what made Mussolini’s infiltration of it so successful. Football in Italy was “both a product of and a reflection of its social context.”[3] The importance of football in Italy to the Fascist regime can largely be considered as subliminal preparation for the inevitable Second World War. Football developed leadership skills while “among those who did not exhibit a calling to command, it promoted obedience, an acute sense of responsibility and, above all, a willingness to submit to authority”[4] all of which were key attributes for successful soldiers.
The unification of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 by King Victor Emmanuel II led to a fragmented nation. This chaotic state was reflected in government and Benito Mussolini emerged in this turmoil with his newly created Fascist Party in 1919. Providing an alternative to the Communist threat that was spreading around the northern sphere of Italy, Mussolini and his fascist party appeared to be the best option for establishing a unified nation. Following the infamous March on Rome in 1922, that aimed to “frighten the fragile liberal elites, and the King, into submission,”[5] as anticipated, the ‘black-shirts’ headed by Mussolini were asked by King Emmanuel to form a government. The term ‘Fascist’ simply meant members of this particular group. “Their specific beliefs and aims were less important than their loyal support for the new movement and its leader Benito Mussolini.”[6] What was important to the population of Italy was that Communism was avoided and the nation would soon be united. Italian Fascism was strongly linked to nationalism, along with ideas to expand the borders of Italy and claim territory to support the growing nation. For Mussolini, this would prove the strength of Italy. The Fascist regime integrated itself into all aspects of society. Abolishing all other parties, the Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF) crushed democracy, and seized all forms of media, ensuring Il Popolo D’Italia was the national newspaper. This allowed Mussolini to control the masses. The front cover of his newspaper continually made statements to consolidate support for the party, particularly on the 31st of October 1922 when he stated his party would provide “un Governo degno dei suoi immancabili destini”.[7] This claimed that his regime would provide a government worthy of Italy’s inevitable destiny (to power on a global level). It was not simply the media that Mussolini used to reach the masses. Football was a growing interest among all classes of society. The games attracted large crowds and support, and therefore laid the foundations for an extremely powerful political tool that Mussolini could use.
CHAPTER 1
FOOTBALL: AN EXTENSION OF FOREIGNPOLICY
“Mussolini’s Fascist regime was the first to use sport as an integral part of the government.”[8]
Mussolini was one of the first political leaders to exploit sport and culture for political gain. Football, prior to the beginning of the Second World War, was used by the Fascist Party to prove the power of Italy, politically and culturally. It was by exploiting culture than the Fascist regime established a “manufacture of consent.”[9]Mussolini’s Press Officer, Lando Ferretti understood the benefits of a successful Italian national team, claiming “such successes were uniting the Italian diaspora behind the regime and symbolised the rise of the Fascist Italian nation.”[10] Football matches in Europe began to symbolise the military power and organisation of each nation, “this gave international matches a meaning they never had before”[11]. American sports writer John Tunis declared in 1936 that “an Italian triumph in football, cycling, tennis or any other sport, particularly if over old rivals like the French, is seized upon, written up and paraded as proof positive of the superiority of the race and its governing principles.”[12] Many Europeans feared Fascism, so Mussolini used football to portray their success. “If Italy conquers England in football, Mussolini plays up the victory as another example of the superiority of a Fascist state over a Democracy.”[13] The World Cup was the perfect stage to prove this success.
When Uruguay hosted the first World Football Championship in 1930, which later became the World Cup, Mussolini refused to send a team, angry that Italy was not chosen to host it. Before Uruguay even had the chance to lift their trophy, Mussolini was planning the celebrations that were to be held in Rome four years later, following Italy’s success. Mussolini understood the benefits of individuals becoming a collective body and therefore “used the second world cup as a platform to secure power.”[14] This power was not confined to the borders of Italy. “The 1934 finals were contested against a backdrop of Fascism in Italy, and politics may have played a part in the final result.”[15]The 1934 World Cup “was actually the 1934 Fascist World Cup”[16] and was used by Mussolini to consolidate support for the Fascist regime within Italy and boast their power on the World stage, particularly around Eastern Europe where tensions remained high as a result of the First World War. During the 1938 World Cup in France, Fascist symbolism was key for intimidating Italy’s opponents and further emphasising their regimental power and organisation. On their opening match in Marseille, the traditional blue strips of the Azzurri were substituted for an all-black alternative, finished with the Fascio Littorio over the heart. This “Roman symbol of power and authority represented the Fascist Party’s “seal of approval”, which both legitimized football under the Fascist regime and symbolised the government’s complete control of football.”[17]The fascist symbolism that was orchestrated to daunt their Norwegian opponents did not stop at fashion. According to head coach of the national team, Vittorio Pozzo, The ‘Roman Salute’ was the ultimate addition to the Fascist propaganda show. “ “Team be ready, Salute” And we raised our hands again, to confirm we had no fear… Having won the battle of intimidation, we played.”[18] This pride in the Fascist regime portrayed by the players themselves can be considered staged to a certain extent. Undoubtedly, some players within the national team supported Mussolini and his radical regime, however goalkeeper Aldo Olivieri, the Gatto Magico of the World Cup winning team suggests that this was not the case for the majority. He claimed the Azzurri had “little choice but to support the national (Fascist) interest of the day.”[19]Moreover, “the athletes were to behave abroad as ‘bishops’ of Italian politics”[20]World Cup hero Silvio Piola confirmed this cooperation, claiming that “a player couldn’t say no”[21] to the dictator. It is therefore evident that Mussolini manipulated Italian football in order to promote his Fascist regime. By portraying the idea that the respected and admired figures of society supported the Fascist regime, Mussolini subliminally installed acceptance throughout the ordinary population of Italy.
The legitimacy of the Azzurri’s consecutive victories is often questioned. On the eve of Italy’s semi-final in 1934 against Austria, Mussolini’s handpicked referee, Ivan Eklind dined with the dictator to discuss ‘tactics’. Whether the discussion was above board or not, the Swedish referee was undoubtedly sympathetic to the Italians during the match, including allegedly headering the ball to the Italian team[22]. As a result of a loyal media, the questionable dinner date did not arouse suspicion throughout Italy. “Similar to the football teams immaculate behaviour, the Italians began to believe that the regime could do no wrong.”[23] Speaking in 1998, Austrian striker Josef Bican of the World Cup 1934 team declared his beliefs of the illegitimacy of Eklind’s refereeing. According to coach Hugo Meisl, Bican and his Austrian teammates “knew that the referee had been bribed, and would referee in favour of the Italians.”[24] What is more, Ivan Eklind went on to referee the World Cup final following Mussolini’s satisfaction that he would operate in favour of the Azzurri, a situation never repeated in World Cup history.By the final, Eklind’s support for the Fascist regime was no longer subdued. Figure 3 (World Cup Final) shows the officials participating in the ‘Roman Salute’ prior to kick off, a major indication of the support consolidated by Mussolini for the Fascism regime outwith the Italian nationals.
The newspapers in Italy not only protected Mussolini, they glorified him. When Italy won the 1934 World Cup, the headline of popular newspaper La Gezzetta dello Sport emphasised the honour of winning the championship in front of Mussolini; “Gli azzurri conquistano alla presenze di Mussolini il campionato.”[25] It was almost as if Mussolini being there was as significant as the victory itself. The international sporting events created a domestic and national audience to promote the Fascist rule to. It was not simply the Italian population that Mussolini was attempting to consolidate support from. Fascist Foreign policy continuously grew opposed to British interests. This strain inevitably progressed into Italian football. In 1939 when Italy played England in Milan, the Fascist party used this setting to simultaneously increased support for Italy whilst decreasing support for England. England occupied Malta at this tense time, so Mussolini and his party paid for 400 Maltese football fans to come to Milan for the match. By providing hospitality for a nation already bitter towards England and its democracy, Mussolini managed to shift support in Malta over to Italy and the Fascist regime. [26] This is a perfect example of the benefits provided by football to promote Italian politics on the global stage. “Fascism was good for Italian football, and football was good for fascism.”[27]
The 1936 Berlin Olympics boasted Italian superiority across the globe. Winning the Gold medal for football, Mussolini’s Azzurrinot only proved their own importance, but simultaneously hindered the success of favourites Great Britain, as well as the competing power of Germany. Adolf Hitler was catching on to the growing support for the Fascist regime in Italy following Mussolini’s infiltration on everyday aspects of Italian life, particularly in football and mimicked the propaganda throughout the sport. Comparable to the 1934 World Cup, Adolf Hitler orchestrated the Olympics in Berlin to portray the superiority of Germany over its European neighbours. The Political leaders of the time, including Hitler and Spain’s General Francisco Franco finally caught up with Mussolini, and understood how football could be used effectively to secure popularity for a political practise.Unfortunately for Mussolini’s rivals, Italy was once again, the triumphant nation. The grand architecture of Hertha Berlin’s Olypmic Stadio could not intimidate Vittorio Pozzo’s men, like the Italian designs had done previously. Mussolini’s Press Officer Lando Ferretti, in sight of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, provided a vision into the minds of the Italian ‘ambassadors’; “to be worthy of Mussolini’s Italy, it is no longer enough to compete with all your strength; it is necessary to go further, to give more, to reach the finishing line exhausted.”[28] This emphasises how central Mussolini was for the Italian national squad. Not only had the dictator consolidated support for the Fascist regime through football, he promoted himself as a figure to be worshiped. By portraying the idea that the sportsmen of Italy had to prove their worth to the leader, Mussolini had done much more than make his regime supported.
Football was the ideal tool for the Fascist regime to prepare soldiers. Poor health was a major issue for Italy, along with most European countries. In 1918 alone, 600,000 troops died from a Spanish fever pandemic.[29] The Fascist regime was keen to avoid such high fatalities in the Second World War, which had been so devastating in the First World War. It was not only the health of the soon-to-be soldiers that needing improving. “Fascism drew upon the embarrassing military defeat in the First World War in order to justify its national project.”[30]Realising that another war was imminent, the Fascist Party ensured the Italian citizens were physically fit (through the use of football) and therefore always prepared for imperialistic foreign policy, proving the Italian race to be superior.Mussolini was able to increase the health of young Italian men (conveniently at the prime age for becoming successful soldiers) through football, without the population even realising. “Mussolini had succeeded in making every male from 6 to 55 an actual or potential soldier.”[31]Promoted as a hobby, and a method to flaunt the success of a newly unified nation, football was the perfect tool to create support and cooperation with the regime quickly throughout the masses. The World Cups of 1934 and 1938 were surrounded by connotations of warfare. Vittorio Pozzo himself referred to his “team of “soldiers” going into the “battlefield” to ultimately win the “war” of football.”[32] Under Mussolini - the “Media Mogul’s”[33] control, Pozzo ensured that the health and wellbeing of these football players was at a level that would create the ultimate soldier, physically fit and ready for battle. The constant tension that was created in sight of the international matches increased nationalism and aligned itself with the Fascist foreign policy, opposing other European powers. A win on the pitch was an allusion of a win on the battlefield. Football had become an integral part of the Fascist regime.
CHAPTER 2
PROPAGANDA; THE SUBLIMINAL PLAYMAKER
“The very moot idea of using football- one of the most popular pastimes of the common man back in the day as propaganda is what separated him… from the rest of the pack.”[34]
The benefits of calico to the Fascist regime were almost unlimited. For Mussolini, calico was a ready-made opportunity to exploit without the nation even realising. Examining the use of propaganda is vital in determining how Mussolini used football in order to consolidate support for the Fascist regime. The creation of powerful stadiums was a major symbol of fascist propaganda that Mussolini introduced. ‘Opportunity’ was the most effective way to describe Mussolini’s plans for propaganda. The Government enforced on Italy by Il Duce needed popular support, and popular support was available in football, thus the opportunity to exploit the nation was provided.Constructed in sight of the 1934 World Cup, “Mussolini invoked the image of Rome and the Renaissance to reassert Italian national identity.”[35] This exploited the emotional appeal of football.Vice-Secretary of the PNF, Leandro Arpinati orchestrated the construction of Stadio Littoriale in Bologna at the expense of the government and the Fascist party themselves, ensuring the contribution of 1,000,000 pounds and 3,000,000 pounds respectively.[36]This grand stadium effectively demonstrated the sovereign power and organisation of Fascism in Bologna. It was not simply the architecture that acted effectively as propaganda for the regime. The Stadio Littoriale allowed for an official inauguration whereby Mussolini entered the ground on a white horse to mark the four-year anniversary of the March on Rome. As with most other propagandist shows set up by the PNF, this ‘over the top’ spectacle symbolised the great power of Fascism and more specifically, Mussolini. The introduction of powerful stadiums as a method of propaganda were one of the key principles which contributed to the Fascist intervention on physical education, identified by former S.S Lazio defender, Augusto Parboni. He realised that “sport became a new method to penetrate and educate the masses physically and spiritually, thereby helping the regime insert itself firmly into the life of the nation until it became indispensable.”[37] This shows just how effective football could be for Mussolini to exploit in order to gain support for the Fascist regime. Mussolini, unlike other European rulers knew the exact importance of football, particularly in a hostile environment like that of the 1930s. “Through football, a given regime not only has access to the means to alter the political processes of a country, but also the ability to suffuse society with its ideology in a unique and persuasive fashion.”[38] This is what separated Mussolini’s Italy from the other competing powers. The dangerous relation between Fascism and football cast a shadow across Europe.