Reducing Chronic Absenteeism 1
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Reducing Chronic Absenteeism:
An Assessment of an Early Truancy Initiative
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[NOTE: as you can see, this isn’t a theory paper. So don’t use this as a guide for content, but instead use it to help answer questions about form, structure, APA citations, etc. If you have ANY questions, please see me.]
Justin W. Patchin
Criminal Justice 301
Section 1
November 15, 2004
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Adapted from: CRIME & DELINQUENCY, Vol. 50 No. 2, April 2004 214-234
Abstract
[JWP4]Chronic school absenteeism has been identified as a precursor to undesirable outcomes in adolescence, including academic failure, school dropout, and juvenile delinquency. In spite of its effect on adolescent functioning, little research has been conducted to identify effective methods of truancy reduction, particularly among elementary-aged students. This paper presents the assessment of an initiative developed to reduce truancy in three elementary schools.[JWP5] Findings suggest that the program was successful in substantially reducing absenteeism among those with chronic attendance problems. Implications for future programs targeting at-risk youth will be discussed.
Reducing Chronic Absenteeism 1
Introduction
[JWP6]In recent years, juvenile crime has become a major social concern in the United States. As such, attempts have been made to address juvenile delinquency at early stages of development. One domain commonly studied in relation to deviant behavior is school problems, which includes such factors as school achievement, school commitment, attendance, and dropout. As part of a constellation of school problems, poor school attendance has been linked with diminished academic performance (Bell, Rosen, & Dynlacht, 1994; Caldas, 1993; Lamdin, 1996)[JWP7], school dropout (Robins & Ratcliff, 1980), substance use (Bell et al., 1994), and violence (Hawkins, Herrenkohl, Farrington, Brewer, Catalano, & Harachi, 1998; McCord & Ensminger, 1997) and is considered a risk factor for serious juvenile delinquency (Huizinga & Jakob-Chien, 1998; Loeber & Farrington, 2000).
Juvenile court interest in school absenteeism has changed over the last several decades. In the mid-1970s and 1980s, the focus of the juvenile justice system shifted from status offenses (including truancy) to more serious law violations. As Dryfoos points out, “between 1975 and 1986, juvenile index offense rates increased while status offense and drug rates decreased” (1990:37)[JWP8]. The shift in focus from status offenses to more serious juvenile delinquency is attributed to policy changes within the juvenile justice system and not necessarily changes in juvenile behavior (Dryfoos, 1990). For example, the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 began a non-interventionist approach to dealing with status offenders (Kobrin & Klein, 1983). Following this policy change, status offenders were diverted (referred to social service agencies or community programs), divested (removed from the jurisdiction of the juvenile court), or decarcerated (punished within the juvenile court using non-secure alternatives; Kobrin & Klein, 1983). As a result, all status offenders, which constituted a significant portion of juvenile offenders (Kobrin & Klein, 1983), were to be handled outside of the formal arena of the juvenile justice system. Since a large number of status offenders are chronic truants, the policy shift certainly affected the enforcement of school attendance laws.
In the mid to late 1980s, scholars, policy makers, and agents of the juvenile justice system demonstrated a renewed interest in school problems and juvenile offending. With the growing popularity of developmental criminology, researchers are increasingly concerned with childhood patterns of behavior that can significantly affect adolescent and adult functioning. As a result, juvenile court interest in school absenteeism has grown substantially in the past decade. [JWP9] While the majority of truancy cases are dealt with informally in the schools, the number of truancy cases formally processed by juvenile courts almost doubled between 1987 and 1996 (Snyder & Sickmund, 1999). In 1998, the number of truancy cases processed in juvenile court represented an 85 percent increase since 1989 (Baker, Sigmon, & Nugent, 2001)[JWP10]. This significant increase in juvenile court truancy cases illustrates the need for school and community based alternatives to reduce chronic absenteeism (Baker et al., 2001).
As part of a growing concern over school attendance and adolescent functioning, a collaborative community initiative was developed to assist families of chronic truants in a Midwestern city. Several community agencies, including the city police department, cooperated to address early school absenteeism. This paper details an assessment of the initiative aimed at improving school attendance among elementary students with chronic attendance problems. First, causal factors related to school absenteeism are reviewed, as is the link between truancy and long-term outcomes. Next, the program model is presented along with a description of the study population. Finally, evaluation findings are revealed and policy implications discussed.[JWP11]
Causes of School Absenteeism
Generally, the factors associated with truancy include a variety of domains such as the individual, the family, the school, and the larger community. In an effort to guide early intervention programs, Levine (1984) identified factors within each domain that can be addressed. Others have categorized risk factors along similar lines, pointing out the influence of individual, family and school characteristics (Barth, 1984) on elementary school attendance.
Among individual-level characteristics are social skills, cognitive skills, health problems, learning disabilities, and emotional disorders, all of which can influence the school experience generally and ultimately affect school attendance. Among elementary school students in particular, Barth suggests that cognitive skills can affect coping and self-perception (1984). In addition, social skills can impact the ability of children to develop relationships with teachers and other students. Those with reduced cognitive or social skills may have a more difficult time adapting to school and may have higher levels of absenteeism as a result, as students who find their school experience to be unpleasant or non-rewarding are less likely to attend school (Barth, 1984).
Among a sample of 100 children with chronic attendance problems, Bools, Foster, Brown, and Berg (1990) estimate the prevalence of school refusal and assess the extent of psychiatric disorders in the non-clinical sample[JWP12]. They describe school refusal as “associated with neurotic features and sometimes physical symptoms which appear to be manifestations of emotional upset” (p. 171). The underlying psychological disorder is typically masked by physical symptoms, which can make it difficult to diagnose and treat those who are chronically absent due to emotional disorders. In their analysis, they find a distinction between the school refusal group that is likely to experience emotional disorders and a truant group, which is more
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This is the main body of your work.
Lay out your arguments and support them with what you found in the literature.
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Conclusion
[JWP13]Overall, this early truancy initiative proved to be successful in addressing elementary absenteeism. Attendance habits of the students in the program significantly improved after the initial stages of intervention. Specifically, a letter sent to parents informing them of their child’s attendance problem and a visit by the school attendance officer both appeared to significantly improve attendance. These approaches to addressing school attendance problems in elementary school do not constitute a considerable drain on school resources. Contacting parents via a form letter is a relatively inexpensive method for communicating attendance problems and offering support to families. Since the attendance officer was already in place in the schools, hiring additional staff was not necessary. Perhaps the greatest investment of school resources was the time it took to review attendance records and identify those with chronic attendance problems. While this was done by school principals in the current study, it is possible that other school staff could manage the task of identifying those students who require intervention.
Evaluation of the early truancy initiative revealed that the process for identifying chronic truants was not strictly followed. Inclusion of students with less serious attendance problems in the program appears to have affected findings. As the comparison between chronic and non-chronic truants suggests, the program was most effective for those with extreme attendance problems. Therefore, this type of program is best suited for chronic truants who showed significant improvement in attendance after initial stages of intervention. If program attention is focused upon those with chronic attendance problems and not upon the marginally truant, perhaps even greater effects can be obtained. Concentrating efforts on chronic truants is likely to enhance the success of future programs and streamline the process for school officials with limited resources.
Overall, this truancy initiative was a successful effort in addressing elementary absenteeism. While it was not expected that absences would be completely eliminated, attendance habits of the youth involved in the program significantly improved after the intervention occurred. Although the long-term implications of this program cannot yet be determined, the short-term findings are encouraging. Moreover, limiting inclusion in the program to youths who exhibit chronic attendance problems may also increase the effectiveness of administrators to successfully address the myriad of social problems plaguing youth. Future attention to school attendance problems is warranted, and should focus on evaluating the processes of promising programs in addition to their ultimate consequences.
Reducing Chronic Absenteeism 1
References
[JWP14]Baker, M. L., Sigmon, J. N., & Nugent, E. M. (2001). Truancy reduction: Keeping students in
school.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
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Barth, R. P. (1984). Reducing nonattendance in elementary schools. Social Work in Education,
6(3), 151-166.
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Bell, A. J., Rosen, L. A., & Dynlacht, D. (1994). Truancy intervention. The Journal of Research
and Development in Education, 27(3), 203-211.
Bernberg, J. G., & Thorlindsson, T. (1999). Adolescent violence, social control, and the
subculture of delinquency. Youth and Society, 30(4), 445-460.
Bools, C., Foster, J., Brown, I., Berg, I. (1990). The identification of psychiatric disorders in
children who fail to attend school: A cluster analysis of a non-clinical population.
Psychological Medicine, 20(1),171-181.
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data
analysis methods.Advanced Quantitative Techniques in the Social Sciences, Volume 1. NewburyPark: Sage Publications.
Caldas, S. J. (1993). Reexamination of input and process factor effects in public school
achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 86(4), 206-214.
Cernkovich, S. A., & Giordano, P.C. (1992). School bonding, age, race, and delinquency.
Criminology, 30(2), 261-2941.
Cook, T.D., & Campbell, D.T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design & analysis issues for
field settings.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
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Dryfoos, J. G. (1990). Adolescents at risk.New York: OxfordUniversity Press.
Farrington, D. (1980). Truancy, delinquency, the home, and the school. In L. Hersov & I. Berg,
(Eds.), Out of school: Modern perspectives in truancy and school refusal (pp. 49-63). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Galloway, D. (1985). Schools and persistent absentees.New York: Pergamon Press.
Garry, E. M. (1996). Truancy: First step to a lifetime of problems.Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Gavin, T. (1997). Truancy: Not just kids stuff anymore. Retrieved September 13, 2004, from
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Other general guidelines:
If you are uncertain whether or not you should cite the author(s) - do it.
Left justify.
Double space.
Use 12 point font (Arial or Times New Roman are the best).
1 inch margins all around.
Type two spaces after periods.
Page numbers should be included on all pages except the title page.
Use subject headings to structure your paper (Introduction, Literature Review, Analysis, Discussion, Conclusion, etc.).
Summarize the work of others in your own words.
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th edition) provides guidelines to authors that specify the organization and structure of a paper that is most conducive to the effective communication of an argument. In short, the APA guidelines help to make your paper easy to read and understand. While the Manual provides specific recommendations regarding content and organization of your paper, the Manual is most helpful in assisting with citation style. Because plagiarism is among the gravest of academic dishonesties, careful consideration of the APA guidelines is essential to ensure proper recognition of the work of others.
[JWP1]Add a running head (a short statement – less than 35 characters – that describes the paper) with the page number in case the pages somehow get separated
[JWP2]Title of the paper – make it descriptive yet simple; but also eye catching
[JWP3]Include: name, course number, section number, and date
[JWP4]The abstract summarizes the paper, and allows potential readers to read a snapshot to determine if they need or want to read the paper. Thesis statements, arguments, and findings can be highlighted here, but keep it to under 150 words.
[JWP5]Very descriptive
[JWP6]Subject headings help to guide the reader through the paper
Intro section should be a roadmap for the entire paper, tell the reader where you are going, what you are looking at.
[JWP7]These studies support the assertion that “poor school attendance has been linked with diminished academic performance”
Cited in the text, at the end of the sentence.
After first cite, can replace “et al.” for 2nd and subsequent authors
Point is to be able to find the source in the works cited page
[JWP8]Here is an example of a direct quote.
[JWP9]At the beginning of the paper, you need to make a case for the paper – why the topic is important, why your paper is better than what is already out there
[JWP10]Here we cite statistics from another study. This is all a part of making the case for why this is an important paper
[JWP11]Here is the roadmap – very specific.
[JWP12]You don’t always have to cite at the end of the sentence, here I am making reference to the study in the middle of the sentence.
Never put the title of the article or journal in the text of your paper – unless you are reviewing or criticizing that article.
[JWP13]At the conclusion of the paper, you want to remind the reader where you have gone, highlight the important points of the study, acknowledge any limitations, and make some suggestions for future research
[JWP14]Reference page, here you want to cite everything that you read from which you borrowed ideas. If it is in your paper, you need to have the full reference in this section. If it is not in your paper, do not include it here.
[JWP15]This is a report
[JWP16]This is the proper citation for a journal article – Author last name, FI, MI (YEAR). Name of the article. Name of the Journal, Volume(issue), page numbers.
[JWP17]Here is an example of a book that is cited. Very similar to journal articles, but the title of the book is italicized, and you need to include the publisher and city in which it was published.
[JWP18]Online article – include the website and the date that you viewed it.