European History

European History

February5-9 2018

• Well comrades the day has finally arrived. Your manifesto is due Friday. Remember to bring your paper and not a bunch of excuses. If you do not have it in class please do not be surprised by a rather stiff penalty.
• This week we will round out a look at the liberal nationalist revolutions of the earlier century using the text/sources. Then we will transition into the mid-century and our discussions will culminate with several critical events: The Crimean War, the Rise of Germany and Italy, the Franco-Prussian War, and the establishment of the Third French Republic
• We will also do a similar operation as we have done in the past where you will be using the text to look at some of the socio-cultural aspects later 19th century Europe

MONDAY

• Examine the changing nature of nationalism in the late 19th century(SP-17)(PP-10)
• Examine France under the Second Empire of Napoleon III

MaterialsFormat

ppt and videoLecture-discussion

Introduction

• Well we have been dealing with the nationalism for a while now. A few weeks ago, we saw that liberal nationalist movements were spawned all across Europe as a result of the Napoleonic wars. In most cases the nationalist movements failed with the revolutionary demands or independence crushed by resurgent conservatism (with Belgium and Greece being exceptions). Also, we saw that with few real exceptions the more liberal demands were also crushed. In some cases, such as France and England liberalism did see notable gains. In France two revolutions created more responsive governments in 1830 and 1848. However, as we are about to see, conservatism under Napoleon III is going to make a comeback. Not surprisingly England would become truly more democratic due to the Second Great Reform Bill in 1867.However only grudgingly will these reforms by applied to parts of the empire such as Ireland and India.
• However, the latter half of the 19th century will see important developments. A new wave of nationalism will sweep across Europe but this time it would be the forces of conservatism at the helm! The unification of both Germany and Italy will occur but this will be led by conservatives and not liberals. However, in some cases liberal ideas were used to strengthen the new states. In Austria the monarchy will continue to resist liberal reform and see its empire shrink with the loss of its German lands and those in Northern Italy. Only the renewed threat of a Hungarian revolt will foster any true reform, the result of which will be the creation of the Dual Monarchy, Austria-Hungary.
• Another country that will be a major focus of our discussions will be Russia. We basically left Russia under Czar Alexander I the conservative master of Europe in 1815. However, Russia during this period would continue to be terribly backwards and caught on a rollercoaster ride of reform and collapse. A revolution in1830 will be crushed. The Crimean War (1853-1856) will see a major wave of reform after their defeat by Turkey and its allies (Britain and France) only to see a duel calamity in 1905 with a defeat at the hands of newly rising power Japan and then another major revolution, a precursor to the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. In addition to this Russia will face more palace instability because of assassinations.
• The events in Europe during this time are also a backdrop for the "bell epoche" in that while instability gripped several countries individually, Europe as a whole only saw two small scale regional wars (Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71 and the Crimean War 1853-1856). This was also the growing age of empire that we shall discuss in the next unit.
• Probably more than at any time since we discussed the mechanizations of the 30 Years War did Europe resemble a strategic chess match when events in one country impacted strategy in others. Some of these moves will also set the stage for World War One. We will begin the unit with events in France from the fall of the Second Republic to the rise of the Second French Empire 1852 - 1870.

France and the Second Republic

We last left France following the success of the 1848 French Revolution. This was an important event if for no other reason than it was the end of French monarchy. Gone were the days when a dynastic family would control France. One byproduct of the 1789 revolution was the guarantee that France would be more responsive to popular voting. This was guaranteed by the willingness of popular revolts in 1830 and 1848. The result was that the French government became a multi-party system with many (maybe too many) voices represented in the bicameral government. While property qualifications still existed, they were far below even those in Britain. However, there was an important issue that plagued France and this was the continued rise of socialism and communism and attempts by liberal-conservative forces to subdue them. Not unlike the feelings that facilitated the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in this period the population soon tired of labor instability and divisive political groups and turned to a stronger executive branch to return a sense of stability.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became the president of France following the 1848 revolution. However he certainly was not handed the job without some nervousness. Perhaps the member of the provisional government then forming worried that he might have a genetic predisposition to empire given his name. In February 1848 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, heir to the throne of Napoleon I, lived in exile in London. Despite his status as an escaped prisoner after trying to topple Charles X in 1830, he boldly landed at Boulogne and arrived in Paris February 27, three days after Louis Philippe abdicated. However after seeking to be appointed president by the provisional government he was initially refused. In March Louis Napoleon sent a representative to France to ascertain if he should be an assembly candidate for the planned April elections. Advised against this, he refused to stand for election. Nevertheless, three of his cousins, including Pierre Bonaparte (son of ex-King Jerome of Westphalia) and Lucien Murat (son of Caroline, ex-Queen of Naples) were elected to the national assembly on April 23.. In May an attack on the assembly was erroneously attributed to Bonapartists. The deputies retaliated, renewed the 1814 ban on Bonapartes living in France and, again, Louis Napoleon protested. By September he was allowed to return to France and was elected to the assembly.

The November 4, 1848 constitution (inaugurated November 12) was politically democratic and based on universal suffrage. There was a seven hundred fifty-member unicameral legislature, elected for a three-year term, and a strong president independent of the assembly, elected for a four-year term. Can you see any potential problems there? Almost immediately Louis Napoleon set his sights higher than assemblyman.

Although Louis Napoleon's presidential campaign centered on the restoration of order, even his political enemy General Cavaignac's supporters cheered when reminded of his courageous attempted coup at Strasbourg in 1836. Results of the presidential election on December 10, 1848 became known on December 13 and were formally proclaimed on December 20, the date he was sworn in as president.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won by a landslide with 5,434,226 votes. His nearest rival, General Cavaignac, received 1,448,107 votes and other candidates fell far behind.

The President Becomes Emperor

The move from President to Emperor was not immediate and may not have been a foregone conclusion. The first major challenged that he faced was in forming a cabinet. He reached out to the opposition to form his government but most turned him down. So, as a result his cabinet became populated mostly by his more conservative supporters. The four-year term of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was ending a term limits did not allow him to be re-elected. His administration had been hugely popular:

1. He had encouraged private investments that strengthened the economy. This of course gained him wide support among the middle class. His capital investment in railroad building the infrastructure and urban improvement of Paris was accomplished in part with government contracts to private contractors. In fact one of the reasons that this was the belle epoche was the average wages across the board improved and the middle class grew much larger.
2. Another important move made by the President was his relationship with the always restive urban working classes. For them he revoked the old Chapelier Laws and made unions and strikes legal. The right to unionize had been one of the major demands of early socialists. Another important improvement that made all classes happy was the strengthening of banking and credit unions through stricter government oversight.

Now with all of this popularity one can see why it might be easy for him to want another term. By December 1851 the President began to form a plan to topple the government through a coup d'etat against the assembly…. sound familiar??? The coup was launched and while there was some resistance in parts of France, these were easily put down with the aid of the army. Taking the cue for his uncle, the President put the coup d'etat to a vote and by 92% he was elected now to a 10-year term as President. In 1852 the next step was taken. 97% of the electorate named him hereditary emperor for life. He took on the regal title Napoleon III. Why not the II? Because this honorary title was given to his cousin who only lived for one year. If he had lived and if Napoleon I empire had lasted, then he would have been the successor.

The Empire under Napoleon III

The record for the Second French Empire meaning Napoleon III because he was its only emperor was mixed. He did continue to work for economic improvement and seems to have truly believed that France should continue along the lines of a republican government. For example, universal male suffrage was proclaimed. However, he clearly had no intention of allowing a true opposition party. Government contracts were used as a way to smooth opposition. Tax money for local projects was a way to guarantee some support would remain even if opposition candidates were elected. Think this sounds corrupt? Our government does much the same toward state governments. By the mid-1860s true opposition was growing in certain areas. An economic downturn was caused in some part by weakening textiles due to cotton imports falling as a result of our Civil War. This would lead to falling wages impacting the urban middle class…and you know where that usually leads. Another failure was the failed attempt to construct a canal across Panama. The canal would of course be built by the US in 1914 but French government investments and cost overruns result in millions of lost revenue.

The true source of trouble for the emperor was in the field of foreign policy. We will discuss this in relation to other lectures in more detail. However, suffice it to say that much of the foreign policy issues lay with attempts to refocus domestic issues with foreign policy intrigues.

1. 1853-1856: French involvement in the Middle East will lead in part to their role in the Crimean War. While on the winning side of the war little was gained for the cost in French lives and treasure.
2. Nationalists wanted to work against the Prussian moves of Chancellor Bismarck to unify Germany and Catholics wanted to support a nationalist uprising in Italy (which will occur and help lead to an independent Italy in the 1860s)
3. A boneheaded invasion of Mexico for not paying debts to France. France clearly did this because the U.S. was embroiled in our Civil War and despite protests by the Lincoln Administration that the Monroe Doctrine was being violated. Wasn't Britain supposed to help keep this from happening? This was a failure and Cinqo de Mayo is still celebrated because the French were defeated. Relations between the US and France would be sour for years to come.

Conclusion

By the late 1860s France was once again concerned about security of its borders. The recognition of an independent Italy was a reflection of attempting to secure friendly relations to the south. In the east the looming specter of a strongly unified Germany was a source of great concern. Ironically the country that would be the final source of difficulty for Napoleon III was the one that caused his uncle's "ulcer;" Spain. Their call for a German to take the vacant throne is what led to the Ems Despatch, the Franco-Prussian Way 1870-71 and finally Napoleon III dethroning (after being captured by the Germans).

Homework

Complete the following for bell work in class on MONDAY Night

Read the following link on the Greek Revolution of 1821 (bell work tomorrow)

Don’t get too hung up on names and remember that since it is bell work I will ask no more than 5 broad questions. My questions will start at the section labelled “Revolutionary Influences”

TUESDAY (bell work Greek Revolution)

• Bell work on the Greek revolt
• Examine the causes and effects of The Crimean War (1853-1856)(SP-17,18)(PP-10)

MaterialsStrategy/Format

PPTLecture-discussion

Introduction

• While a little-known event today, the Crimean War was a pivotal event with short and long range implications for European (and world history). Against the backdrop of failed liberal nationalist revolutions in the early part of the century, this event came as a shock to most conservative powers. The origins of the conflict are best discussed by first taking a look at what was going on in several countries at the time

• Nicholas I decided that with his reign now secure that he would expand his empire at the expense of the "sick man of Europe," the Ottoman Empire. The ultimate objective, as it had been for much of Russian history was a warm water port access from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This involved the straights of Dardanelles, a strategic choke point to this day. Also, he hoped to pluck lands from Ottoman control in the Balkans region. However, the pretense for starting this war actually involved a series of events between the French and the Ottoman Empire.
• Our old buddy Napoleon III, exploited Turkish weakness to secure concessions for the Catholic church in Palestine, hoping to gain conservative support for his plannedcoup d’etat which occurred as you know December 2, 1851 When Czar Nicholas I of Russia retaliated, sending a mission to recover Greek Orthodox rights, the Turks simply gave way to both parties, and hoped the issue would go away.
• In July 1853, Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Walachia) to pressure Istanbul, but this threatened Austria’s economic lifeline - the Danube. For a ‘sick man’, The Ottoman sultan proved remarkably dexterous and aggressive. Outwitting Austria, Britain and France, who still favored a diplomatic settlement, they declared war in October 1853 and attacked the Russians. The sultan well understood that especially Britain did not want to see a stronger and more bold Russia because they could threaten their "line of communication with India."
• After an ultimatum to withdraw from the Black Sea area passed, Britain, France, and Austria declared war on Russia. At the outbreak of war, an allied army of 60,000 was already in Turkey to defend Istanbul. Austria (though they did actively send troops) then joined French and British demands that Russia evacuate the Danubian Principalities, whereupon Nicholas I actually agreed, thereby calling the allies' bluff. He was wrong.
• The first major battle was a series of attacks at Sevastopol in the Crimea. The Battle of Balaclava on 24 October, ended with the legendary British ‘Charge of the Light Brigade’, which was, although misguided, an astonishingly successful operation of war, with relatively light casualties - only 118 killed out of 620. The Russians were so frightened by the cold courage of the British troopers, they never again dared face them in the open field. In the spring of 1855, the allies, heavily reinforced with French troops and employing improved logistics, began to batter their way into Sevastopol, and British gunboats cut Russian supply lines across the Sea of Azov. After a last despairing counter attack in August, the Russians were resigned to defeat. One reason for this change of heart was the death of Nicholas I in 1855 and the new czar Alexander II realized that the war would probably be lost.
• The Treaty of Paris, signed on March 30, 1856, Russia returned southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube to Turkey; Moldavia, Walachia and Serbia were placed under an international rather than a Russian guarantee; the Sultan promised to respect the rights of his Christian subjects; and the Russians were forbidden to maintain a navy on the Black Sea. For Russia, the defeat was another stinging reminder of their failures. For Russia, the loss of a million men mostly due to poor conditions and supply set the stage for a wave of reforms. The loss for the French was about 100,000 men and the opposite of what Napoleon III hoped for actually occurred. The French did not rally to him but started to question his worth. Britain could be called the only clear winner. Though they lost 25,000 men, the" line of communication" was saved. The main result of the war was the end of the Concert of Vienna from 1815. Not only did Austria refuse to join, neither did the Prussians who, as we know, were just then making plans for their own unification of Germany.

The Period of Russian Reforms