Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erikson was one of the first psychologists to insist that development was a life-long process rather than coming to completion at puberty or adolescence. He conceptualized eight stages spanning from birth to old age. Erikson defined these stages with a focus on tasks that each individual must master. Unsuccessful resolution of these tasks would leave a “psychological scar.” Erikson’s stages were developed in response to Freud’s psychosexual stage theory. Whereas Freud thought that each stage was represented by a sexual crisis, Erikson thought that each stage was distinguished by a psychosocial crisis. Erikson took into account the impact of the larger society on development.
Erikson’s Stages:
Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1-year): Feeling that people will take care of you vs. viewing the world as a cold, fearsome place.
The basic crisis at this stage is the infant’s hope and faith that someone cares about and will take care of him or her versus a dread or fear of being abandoned. If parents consistently and successfully meet the infant’s needs, the infant learns to trust his or her environment. According to Erikson, the infant’s first social achievement is the willingness to let the mother out of sight without anxiety or rage because he or she is certain the mother will return. If parents do NOT successfully meet the infant’s needs, the infant develops a mistrust and fear of people and objects in the environment. Failure to develop this trust also results in adults who display psychopathology of withdrawal and depression.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3-years): Independence through exploring and “testing” others vs. doubt that you can succeed.
The basic crisis at this stage is the toddler’s assertion of independence through exploring and testing limits versus the toddler being made to feel ashamed for maintaining independence. “Potty training” is an important issue. Successful resolution of the crisis occurs when parents allow toddlers some autonomy (say be giving them choices) but at the same time impose some limits. This results in the development of willpower on the part of the toddler.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years): Ability to take initiative and follow through vs. guilt when others discourage this behavior.
The basis crisis is the development of the child’s ability to initiate activity and see those activities through. Guilt arises from parental discouragement of a child’s initiative, although Erikson argues that the parent must forbid some inappropriate behaviors, but in a manner that does not make the child feel guilty for initiating the activity. Successful resolution leaves the child with a sense of purpose and direction and confidence in planning. Unsuccessful resolution leaves the child with a feeling of unworthiness and a fear that almost everything self-initiated will go wrong.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 11 years): Learning culture’s skills and deriving feelings of competence from peers vs. feeling inferior relative to peers.
The basic crisis if the for the child to learn the skills of the culture, usually in a school setting. For Erikson, school marked the child’s entrance into real life. The child’s constant testing of self in school and against peers is the basis for feelings of competency (industry) or lack of it (inferiority). At this stage, children are eager to be productive and learn the fundamentals of technology. If encouraged, a child will enjoy solving problems and completing tasks, and will seek intellectual stimulation. If not, a sense of inferiority will arise. However, Erikson cautions that, “If he accepts work as his only obligation, and ‘what works’ as his only criterion of worthwhileness, he may become the conformist and thoughtless slave of his technology and those who are in a position to exploit it.”
Identify vs. Role Confusion (12 to 20 years): Asking the question “Who am I?” by trying on roles within a secure environment vs. lack of exploration and delayed sense of self.
Successful resolution of this crisis involves the development of a sense of identity, of reconciling various roles in life into a single identity. Ego identity also involves a confidence that one has a sense of sameness and continuity that is apparent to others. Unsuccessful resolution involves confusion and uncertainty over self-identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adults): Committing to a close, sharing relationship, surrendering some independence vs. keep total independence and isolation.
Successful resolution involves giving up some isolation and developing healthy bonds/love with another. Unsuccessful resolution involves loneliness and may possibly lead to promiscuity (Meredith Gray?). Those choosing isolation are ready, if necessary, to destroy those people who seem dangerous to them, thus the development of prejudice.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adults): Developing a concern for establishing and guiding the next generation (expanding one’s concerns beyond one’s immediate group to that of society and future generations) vs. feeling unfulfilled and becoming self-centered.
Successful resolution of this conflict may involve having and nurturing children, teaching, taking on younger protégés, or by productive and creative work that will live on. Unsuccessful resolution involves stagnation and selfishness.
Integrity vs. Despair (65 years on): Accepting the life one has lived without major regrets vs. despair that time has run out.
Ego integrity is the culmination of the successful resolution of the seven previous crises in development. It is an acceptance of the life one has lived without major regrets for what could or should have been done differently. The person who cannot accept the basic way his life has been lived may despair that time has run out. Many of those experiencing despair are very afraid of death. Successful resolution involves wisdom and acceptance of being in the final stages of life.
Check Your Understanding:
For each of the examples given below, identify which of Erikson’s eight stages of social development best matches the example. Briefly explain your choices.
1) Sarah's children are all in high school and college. Sarah works as an assistant manager at a small department store, and most of what she earns goes toward paying her children's college tuition. Her own children lead busy lives with friends and school activities occupying most of their time, so Sarah volunteers one evening each week at a nearby foster care facility. She enjoys reading bedtime stories to the young children housed here.
2) Sammy wants to pour the milk on his cereal all by himself. When mommy starts to pour the milk, he puts his hands over the bowl and shouts, "NO! ME DO IT!"
3) Timmy is concerned with how he compares to his peers. For example, he always wants to know if he can kick the ball farther or read better than his friends.
4) Beverly is fascinated by her father's garden. One day dad allows Beverly to accompany him outside while he works in the garden, and she is excited about the prospect of helping out. Dad, however, decides that Beverly is too young to help, and he encourages her to play with her toys instead. When dad stops to chat with a neighbor, Beverly takes the hoe and tries to dig up weeds as she has seen her father do. Of course, she is not very good at this and she ends up cutting down a tomato vine along with the weeds. Her father is quite upset and scolds her harshly.
5) John finds himself thinking more about himself -- who he is, what he really is like inside as a person, how he relates to others and so on. He thinks a lot about his religious beliefs, his political views, and his views on significant social issues.
6) Hannah sees Dr. Eppler teaching Elizabeth how to knit, and Hannah begs us to also teach her how to knit. That same day, Hannah also pleads to be allowed to help make Elizabeth's birthday cake.
James Marcia’s States of Adolescent Identity
*Identity is a new way of thinking about oneself that emerges during adolescence. Identity involves a sense of self-unity, accompanied by a feeling that the self has continuity over time. A firmly established identity also provides a sense of uniqueness as a person. According to Erikson’s psychosocial model of development, identity must be perceived by the individual, but also recognized and confirmed by others. Thus, the process of establishing an identity involves “Integrating into a coherent whole one’s past experiences, ongoing personal changes, and society’s demands and expectations for one’s future” (Sprinthall & Collins, 1984).
*James Marcia expanded on Erikson’s work and argued that identity could be viewed as a structure of beliefs, abilities and past experiences regarding the self. “The better developed this structure is, the more individuals appear to be of their own… strengths and weaknesses… The less developed this structure is, the more confused individuals seem to be about their own distinctiveness from others and the more they have to rely on external sources to evaluate themselves” (Marcia, 1980, p. 159).
*Marcia divided the identity crisis into four states. These are processes that adolescents go through. All adolescents will occupy one or more of these states, at least temporarily. But, because these are not stages, people do not progress from one step to the next in a fixed sequence, nor must everyone go through each and every state. Each state is determined by two factors: 1. Is the adolescent committed to an identity, and 2. Is the individual searching for their true identity?
Marcia’s Identity States
Identity Foreclosure: The adolescent blindly accepts the identity and values that were given in childhood by families and significant others. The adolescent’s identity is foreclosed until they determine for themselves their own true identity. The adolescent in this state is committed to an identity, but as a result of conforming to the expectations of others, not as a result of their own searching. For example, an individual may have allowed a parent to decide what career they will pursue in order to avoid the uncertainty. They have not explored a range of options (experienced an identity “crisis”). Adolescents in foreclosure tend to be inflexible and intolerant of people who do not share their views and commitments.
Identity Diffusion: The adolescent is in a state of having no clear idea of one’s identity and making no attempt to find that identity. These adolescents may have struggled to find their identity, but they never resolved it, and they seem to have stopped trying. There is no commitment and no searching. They tend to wander about without goals or interests and seem to live from moment to moment. While this is common in middle school and early high school, but 11th or 12th grade, identity diffusion can lead to an “I don’t care” attitude. Some in this category become angry and rebellious. They may reject socially accepted beliefs, values and goals.
Identity Moratorium: The adolescent has acquired or vague or ill-formed ideological and occupational commitments; he/she is still undergoing the identity search (crisis). They are beginning to commit to an identity but are still developing it. A moratorium is a “time out” period. In this state, they are actively exploring alternative commitments in an attempt to forge their identity, but are delaying in making firm commitments. They are experiencing an identity crisis, but appear to be moving toward identity formation. They may experiment with different behaviors and personalities, like a new hairstyle. Adolescents who stay in moratorium longer than others may become somewhat anxious as they struggle to find anchors in an unstable world. But for most high school students in moratorium who say, “I don’t know what I want to do,” it is enough to know that they are heading in the right direction even if they do not know where their journey will end.
Identity Achievement: The adolescent has developed well-defined personal values and self-concepts. They have experienced an identity crisis and emerged from it with a solid set of beliefs or with a life plan. They have made commitments necessary for building a sense of identity as defined by Marcia. Their identities may be expanded and further defined in adulthood, but the basics are there. They are committed to an ideology and have a strong sense of ego identity. Adolescents in this state tend to have feelings of well-being, high self-esteem, and self-acceptance. They are capable of setting goals and working toward attaining them. Many people do not reach identity achievement until well after high school.
Your Task
Identify someone who exemplifies each state and explain why you chose them. This could be a real person (dead or alive) or a fictional character. Then, assess yourself. Which state do you think best describes you right now? Write a reflection explaining your assessment.