Electronic Supplementary Material
FIGURE S.1 Case study: a single-family detached house in the Belgian context: floor plan (left - dimensions in cm) and picture of front façade (right). Source: Allacker 2010, 167
FIGURE S.2 Illustrative example of the influence of building typology on land use by the buildings themselves: equal number of households for the four building types considered: apartment, detached, semi-detached and terraced house
FIGURE S.3 Production stage: land use impact due to the different models used: contribution to the different work sections of the flat roof of the timber frame dwelling
FIGURE S.4 Production stage: land use impact due to the different models used: contribution to the different work sections of the flat roof of the solid structure dwelling
TABLE S.1: Land use: overview of midpoint and endpoint impact assessment methods
Method / Model / Indicator / Source / Main characteristics / ILCD recommen-dation*Midpoint methods
ReCiPe / - Agricultural land occupation (ALO) in [m2/yr],
- Urban land occupation (ULO) in [m2/yr],
- Natural land transformation (NLT) in [m2], / De Schryver and Goedkoop 2009 / - Follow-up of CML2002
- No differentiation to land use types is made (CFagr = CFurban = CFtrans = 1), except for land use, unknown, which is handled differently in Ecoinvent
- Midpoint characterization factors: agricultural land occupation potential [m2 yr/m2 yr]; urban land occupation potential [m2 yr/m2 yr] and natural land transformation [m2/m2]. / 0
Milà i Canals / Soil Organic Matter (SOM) / Kg C deficit / Milà i Canals 2007 / - SOM influences the soil buffer capacity, soil structure and fertility
- should be combined with biodiversity indicators
- In highly acidified or waterlogged soils the SOM may not correlate directly with soil quality. / C** => Level III***
Baitz / 7 quality indicators / 1. Erosion stability
2. Filter, buffer and transformation function for water
3. Groundwater availability and protection
4. Net Primary Production
5. Water permeability and absorption capacity
6. Emission filtering absorption and protection
7. Ecosystem stability and biodiversity / Baitz 2007, further developed by Bos and Wittstock 2008 / - Quality parameters: type of soil, slope of the landscape, carbon content and the maturity of the landscape.
- The 7 indicators cannot be combined or weighted at midpoint level / D****
Endpoint methods
EPS2000 / Species diversity loss and production of wood / 1. Normalized Extinction of species (NEX)
2. Kg of dry wood / Järvinen and Miettinen 1987 / - Only regional effects
- Both indicators are combined using Willingness to pay. / C
Eco-Indicator 99 / Species diversity loss / Potentially disappeared fraction (PDF) x year x m2 / Goedkoop and Spriensma 2000 / - Region: Central Europe
- Local and regional effects
- Based on observed effects / C
ReCiPe / Species diversity loss / Damage to ecosystem diversity (ED), given in [species.yr] or [PDF.m2.yr]
Endpoint indicator for occupation: Potential disappeared fraction (PDF) of species
Endpoint indicator for transformation: PDF.yr (yr = restoration time) / De Schryver and Goedkoop 2009 / - Region: Northwest Europe
- Local and regional effects
- Based on Koellner 2003
- Not reviewed
- No uncertainty data
- Endpoint characterization factors: no direct link with midpoint [given in yr/m2]; / C => interim*****
LIME / Species diversity loss and NPP / Expected Increase in Number of Extinct Species and Dry weight (kg/m2) of Net Productivity / Itsubo and Inaba 2005 / - Region: Japan (damage factors for biodiversity)
- Region: World (damage factors for NPP) / C
Swiss Ecoscarcity / Species diversity loss / Ecosystem damage potential (EDP) / Koellner 2003; Koellner and Scholz 2008 / - Region: Swiss plateau
- Based on Koellner 2003
- Local and regional effects / C
Impact 2002+ / Species diversity loss / Potentially disappeared fraction (PDF) x year x m2 / Humbert et al. 2012 / - Only occupation impacts are considered, not land transformation / -
* Source: JRC, Technical Workshop on Life Cycle Impact Assessment recommended methods, Brussels, 26th October 2010. Presentation part 2. From: http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/projects (Accessed August 2012)
** C = Compliance of the model with the ILCD criteria requirements in some aspects
*** Level III: recommended, but to be applied with caution
**** D = Little compliance of the model with the ILCD criteria requirements
***** Interim: Immature for recommendation but the most appropriate among the existing approaches
TABLE S.2 Energy related requirements and characteristics of the solid structure and timber frame house
Insulation value of the building (K-value*) / Max. K40 / K36 / K35
Energy performance of the building (E-value**) / Max. E70 / E61 / E61
Net energy demand (for heating and sanitary hot water) (kWh/m2) / Max. 70 / 70 / 69
U-values of the building elements (W/m2K)
- Floor on grade / Umax = 0.35 / U = 0.34 / U = 0.34
- Outer walls / Umax = 0.32 / U = 0.29 / U = 0.28
- Windows / Umax = 2.2 / U = 1.28 - 1.45 / U = 1.31 – 1.50
- Glazing / Ug,max = 1.3 / U = 1.1 / U = 1.1
- Roof / Umax = 0.27 / U = 0.22 / U = 0.20
Overheating (Kh)*** / Max. 17,500 / 13,757 / 14,014
* The K-value of a building refers to its total insulation value. It is obtained by multiplying the ratio of the average heat transmittance coefficient Um (W/m²K) and a reference value (Um,ref) with 100. The reference value depends on the compactness (C) of the building. For a compactness lower than or equal to 1 m, the Um,ref equals 1, for 1 < C < 4 m, Um,ref equals (C+2)/3 and for C ≥ 4 m, Um,ref equals 2 W/m²K. The Um value is calculated according to the Belgian norms specified in the Belgian official journal. Source: Belgian Official Journal 13.11.2007, bijlage - transmissie referentie document (translated title: appendix – transmission reference document), Brussels, Belgium
** The E-value of a building is a measure of its yearly primary energy use compared to a reference, multiplied by 100. The reference value (Echar ann prim en cons,ref) equals 115 x AT,E + 70 x VEPW + 105 x Vdedic,ref. AT,E is the enclosure (m²), VEPW is the volume (m³) and Vdedic,ref is the ventilation rate (m³/h). All are calculated according to the Flemish norms for the energy performance calculation of buildings. Source: Belgian Official Journal - Besluit van de Vlaamse Regering van 11 maart 2005 tot vaststelling van de eisen op het vlak van de energieprestaties en het binnenklimaat van gebouwen - bijlage I (translated title: Decision of the Flemish Government of 11 March 2005 laying down the requirements in terms of energy performance and indoor climate of buidlings – appendix I). Brussels, Belgium
*** The overheating indicator (expressed in Kelvin-hour (Kh)) according to EPB is an indication of the risk for overheating by considering the excess heat gains. If the indicator is below the threshold value of 8.000 Kh, the chance that active cooling will be installed in future is assumed nihil. The maximum allowed value equals 17.500 Kh or thus one assumes that the chance for the installation of active cooling is 100%. For a value between 8.000 and 17.500 Kh, a linear increase from 0 to 1 is assumed. If the chance for active cooling is higher than 0% (or thus the overheating indicator is higher than 8.000 Kh), EPB assumes a fictive cooling (for an average indoor air temperature of 23°C). Source: Belgian Official Journal - Besluit van de Vlaamse Regering van 11 maart 2005 tot vaststelling van de eisen op het vlak van de energieprestaties en het binnenklimaat van gebouwen - bijlage I (translated title: Decision of the Flemish Government of 11 March 2005 laying down the requirements in terms of energy performance and indoor climate of buidlings – appendix I). Brussels, Belgium
TABLE S.3 Composition of the floor on grade, inner walls, outer walls and roof for both construction techniques
Building element / Timber frame / Solid structureFloor on grade / Compacted sand filling – 13 cm
Polyethylene sheet
Reinforce concrete slab – 15 cm
Cement based screed – 5cm
XPS edge insulation – 1 cm
PUR foam – 6 cm
Ceramic tiles – 1 cm
Outer walls / Acrylic painting
Gypsum board – 1.25 cm
Supporting structure for boards (timber)
Polyethylene sheet
Wood skeleton + rock wool – 14 cm
OSB board – 1.8 cm
Waterproof course
Air cavity – 3 cm
Brick veneer – 9 cm / Acrylic painting
Gypsum plaster – 1 cm
Clay building blocks – 14 cm
Rock wool – 10 cm
Air cavity – 3 cm
Brick veneer – 9 cm
Non-bearing inner walls / Acrylic paint
Gypsum board – 1.25 cm
Wood skeleton + rock wool – 9 cm
Gypsum board – 1.25 cm
Acrylic paint / Acrylic paint
Gypsum plaster – 1 cm
Clay building blocks – 9 cm
Gypsum plaster – 1 cm
Acrylic paint
Loadbearing inner walls / Acrylic paint
Gypsum board – 1.25 cm
Wood skeleton + rock wool – 14 cm
Gypsum board – 1.25 cm
Acrylic paint / Acrylic paint
Gypsum plaster – 1 cm
Clay building blocks – 14 cm
Gypsum plaster – 1 cm
Acrylic paint
Flat roof / Acrylic paint
Gypsum board – 1.25 cm
Supporting structure for boards
Wooden joists and cross beams – 22 cm
Sloping layer in prefab wood – 5 cm
OSB – 1.8 cm
Bituminous polyester foil P150/16
Resol – 8 cm
EPDM
Aluminium roof edge profile / Acrylic paint
Gypsum plaster – 1 cm
Precast hollow reinforced concrete slab – 16.5 cm
Sloping layer in light concrete – 5 cm
Glass fibre reinforced oxidised Bituminous foil VP40/15
Resol – 10 cm
EPDM
Aluminium roof edge profile
TABLE S.4 Replaced Ecoinvent processes
Original process / Replaced byElectricity, low voltage, at grid/CH U / Electricity, low voltage, at grid/BE U
Electricity, medium voltage, at grid/CH U / Electricity, medium voltage, at grid/BE U
Electricity, medium voltage, at grid/DE U / Electricity, medium voltage, at grid/BE U
Heat, light fuel oil, at industrial furnace 1 MW/CH U / Heat, light fuel oil, at industrial furnace 1 MW/RER U
Heavy fuel oil, burned in industrial furnace 1MW, non-modulating/CH U / Heavy fuel oil, burned in industrial furnace 1MW, non-modulating/RER U
Light fuel oil, burned in industrial furnace 1MW, non-modulating/CH U / Light fuel oil, burned in industrial furnace 1MW, non-modulating/RER U
Tap water, at user/CH U / Tap water, at user/RER U
Transport, freight, rail/CH U / Transport, freight, rail/RER U
Transport, lorry >28t, fleet average/CH U / Transport, lorry > 32t, EURO5/RER U
Transport, lorry 20-28t, fleet average/CH U / Transport, lorry 16-32t, EURO5/RER U
Transport, lorry 3.5-20t, fleet average/CH U / Transport, lorry 3.5-16t, fleet average/RER U
Transport, van <3.5t/CH U / Transport, van <3.5t/RER U
TABLE S.5: Transport scenario for 10 material categories, based on Debacker et al. 2012
Material category / Transport / Transport mean from / Transport distance fromfrom manufacturer to construction site / via retailer / manufacturer to construction site / manufacturer to retailer / Retailer to construction site / manufacturer to construction site / manufacturer to retailer / Retailer to construction site
Truck > 16t / Truck 3.5-16t / Van < 3.5t / Truck > 16t / truck
> 16t / truck
3.5-16t / van
< 3.5t / km / km / km
Bulk materials for structural work (e.g. cement, sand) / 75% / 25% / 100% / 0% / 0% / 100% / 90% / 10% / 0% / 100 / 100 / 35
Poured concrete / 100% / 0% / 100% / 0% / 0% / - / - / - / - / 35 / - / -
Precast products for structural work (e.g. reinforced hollow concrete slab) / 100% / 0% / 100% / 0% / 0% / 100% / 100% / 0% / 0% / 100 / 100 / 35
Loose products for structural work (e.g. building bricks, roof coverings) / 40% / 60% / 100% / 0% / 0% / 100% / 85% / 15% / 0% / 100 / 100 / 35
Insulation / 40% / 60% / 100% / 0% / 0% / 100% / 85% / 15% / 0% / 125 / 125 / 35
Ceramic tiles / 0% / 100% / - / - / - / 100% / 90% / 10% / 0% / 1500* / 1500* / 35
Finishing products: plaster (e.g. gypsum plaster, gypsum board) / 40% / 60% / 50% / 50% / 0% / 100% / 50% / 50% / 0% / 100 / 100 / 35
Finishing products: joinery (e.g. window frames) / 90% / 10% / 50% / 45% / 5% / 100% / 40% / 50% / 10% / 100 / 100 / 35
Finishing products: paint and varnish / 10% / 90% / 0% / 100% / 0% / 100% / 0% / 80% / 20% / 100 / 100 / 35
Technical services (e.g. boiler, heating devices, ventilation) / 0% / 100% / - / - / - / 100% / 0% / 80% / 20% / - / 100 / 35
* Ceramic tiles are mainly imported from Italy and Spain (Sezzi 2009)
TABLE S.6: Cleaning, maintenance and replacement scenarios, based on Allacker et al. 2011
Building element / cleaning / Small maintenance / Big maintenance / replacementFloor on grade / Ceramic tiles / Vacuum-clean, mop, weekly / 10% repair of cement mortar joints 15 y
Inner wall / Alkyd paint / Clean with water and soap, yearly / 10% repaint: 5 y / 10 y
Gypsum board / 5% repair 10 y / 30 y
Gypsum plaster / 5% repair 5 y / 10% repair 10 y
Non-bearing walls / 30 y
Outer wall / Alkyd paint / Clean with water and soap, yearly / 10% repaint 5 y / 10 y
Gypsum board / 5% repair 10y / 30 y
Gypsum plaster / 5% repair 5 y / 10% repair 10 y
Brick veneer / 10% repair of cement joints
Flat roof / Joists and beams / Treatment with timber worm pesticide 30y
Gypsum board / 5% repair 10y / 30 y
Gypsum plaster / 5% repair 5 y / 10% repair 10 y
Alkyd paint / Clean with water and soap, yearly / 10% repaint 5 y / 10 y
EPDM / 10% repair 15 y / 30 y
Aluminium roof edge profile / 5% repair 15 y / 30 y
Technical services / 30 y
Windows / Cleaning with water and soap, every 2 months / 30 y
TABLE S.7 Calculation of the energy use for heating in kWh/m2 floor area, year