Earth Science for Struggling Students

Book 1: Inside the Earth /Earth’s Interior

Chapter 1: Layers of the Earth

Vocabulary Building:

1. / direct evidence
indirect evidence
Crust
Mantle
lithosphere
asthenosphere / : / Evidence that has been directly observed with the five senses, and that requires no assumptions or inferences to be drawn. For example, using rock samples or soil sample to analyze.
A set of clues that scientists use to make guesses about things they cannot see or test directly.
the thin and solid outermost layer of earth above the mantle
a thick layer of hot but solid rock
a rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust
the soft layer of the mantle on which the lithosphere floats
. / convection currents
Core
composition / : / Circular currents in the mantle caused by the magma being heated by the core off the Earth.
Inner zone of the earth. It consists of a solid inner core and a liquid outer core.
The chemical makeup of a rock; describes either the minerals or other materials in the rock
3. / :
Density / : / the amount of matter in a given space; mass per unit volume
5.
6. / seismic waves / : / waves produced by earthquakes that help us study the inner layers of Earth
:
:
9. / :

Jack Meadows was not your typical 12 year old boy. He was quite fascinated by space and everything that revolves around it. To him, Earth is a mystical place, full of mysteries that he was determined to solve. Jack will start 6th grade in just a few days. His cousin, Melody Lambert, a rising seventh grader warned about the sixth grade science curriculum. She explained that the first topic he will be learning about was Earth’s interior.

Jack wondered, “How could a person actually get inside the Earth to learn about its composition?” Jack grabbed his Apple i-Pad Air tablet to start his search about the Earth’s interior. In his search, Jack learned that geologists relied on two main types of evidence to look inside the Earth: Direct and indirectevidence. Jack was further confused. “What exactly is direct and indirect evidence?” he thought.

Jack put down his tablet, and ran in search of his dad. Dr. Jeremy Meadow was the research director for a major geological site at the University of Georgia. “Dad, what exactly is direct and indirect evidence used by geologists?” Dr. Meadow pondered the question. “What exactly are the geologists looking at?” “Well, I was trying to find out what the inside of the Earth would look like,” said Jack. “Geologists, like me, use rock samples and soil samples. These are examples of direct evidence. They also use seismic waves from earthquakes to learn about Earth’s interior. Direct evidence gives clues to the composition and structure of the rocks that make up Earth. Indirect evidence, such as seismic waves,isgiven off during Earthquakes. The speed and paths these waves travel help to describe the structure of the Earth. “Wow, thanks dad.” Jack realized that there was more to discover about the Earth’s structure.

Jack decided to return to his tablet to research what layers were found inside the Earth. In his search, he found that the Earth had four layers, much like an onion or a hard-boiled egg. The first layer starting from the outside moving inwards was called the crust,followed by the mantle, and the outer and inner core. The crust was solid rock, and it is the place where we live. The mantle is made up of three parts: The lithosphere, the upper most part of the mantle, is also part of the crust. The middle mantle, called the asthenosphere,issemi-solid and can bend like hot plastic. In this region you can find the convection currents. Here heat is distributed. The heat near the core rises towards the lithosphere, while the relatively colder air flows back down to the core where it is reheated again. The movement of cold liquid and hot liquid from the lithosphere to the lower mantleis called convection currents. It is believed that the lithospheric plates or tectonic plates rest on the lithosphere and these convection currents generate enough movement to cause the plates and continents to move. The last part of the mantle is the lower mantle. This part of the mantle is solid and very hot because it lies next to the core. The core has two parts: The outer core is molten or liquid iron and nickel. The second part of the core is the inner core. The inner core is dense and solid iron and nickel. It is solid because it is at the highest pressure. Temperature, pressure, and density increase as you move from the crust towards the inner core. Since the liquid outer core is made of iron, movement within this layer creates Earth’s Magnetic field.

Figure 1

  • Figure 2

Jack was amaze at the depth and structure of the Earth and the amount of information that geologists were able to uncover using direct and indirect evidence.

Jack summarized the information as follows: Scientists use direct evidence to study the interior of the Earth. Direct evidence is evidence that can be touched and analyzed. Indirect evidence cannot be touched and is based on assumptions or inferences.

Discussion questions:

  1. Write a brief summary of Jack’s discovery of the Earth’s structure.
  2. Differentiate between the lithosphere/asthenosphere and the outer core /inner core.
  3. Describe what convection currents are and how they form in the mantle.

Extension: (Analysis)

  1. What do you think would happen to the convection currents in the mantle if Earth’s interior cooled down?

Chapter 2: Continental Drift and Pangaea

Vocabulary Building:

fossil
continental drift
Pangaea / : / Preserved remains of once-living organisms
The hypothesis that the continents slowly move across Earth's surface.
According to geologists, the earth originally had only one "supercontinent" that drifted apart, subsequently into the 7 continents.

PBS, Public Broadcasting Station, was broadcasting a documentary on the theory of continental drift. As Jack watched the broadcast, he learned that continents were once joined together like pieces of a puzzle. It once existed as a single land mass called Pangaea. The continents have since drifted apart. Putting together puzzle pieces was one of Jack’s strengths. He has been putting together puzzle since he was a preschooler. Jack pondered how this was possible. A whole new adventure was opened up to Jack. Jack was determined to get the answers he needed.

After watching the broadcast, Jack seemed to have more questions than answers. He decided to call his cousin, Melody Lambert. “Hey Melody, can you tell me what you know about the hypothesis of continental drift?” ”Well according to Mrs. Stark, a scientist by the name of Alfred Wegener hypothesized that all seven continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea. However, Wegener was unable to explain the phenomenon that caused the continents to drift apart.” “But what evidence did Wegener used that led him to believe that the continents were once connected or joined?” asked Jack. “You may need to do some further research to find out,” answered Melody. “Thanks,” replied Jack.

Jack grabbed his tablet and preceded to Google the hypothesis of continental drift and Albert Wegener. Jack discovered that Wegener found evidence from land features, evidence from fossils, and evidence from climate. “Wow, this was interesting stuff,” thought Jack. “What could these evidence be?” pondered Jack. In his research, Jack read that Wegener pieced together the maps of Africa and South America. He saw that the mountain ranges on the east of South America fit completely with the West coast of Africa. This provided the evidence of land features. Wegener found samples of the fossil Lystrosaurus and Mesosaurus in places that were separated by oceans. Neither reptile could swim, so the land had to have been once joined together. A fern-like plant called Glossopteris was found in the rocks of several continents. When Wegener studied the continent of South Africa, he observed that South Africa had once been covered with continental glaciers. This showed that South Africa was at one time very close to the South Pole. This provided the evidence of climate. Jack put down his tablet, and rushed to find his father.

Figure 1Figure 2

Figure 3 GlossopterisFigure 4 Alfred Wegener

Figure 5 Pangaea

Map of the Pangaea

“Dad, why was it so difficult for the people to accept Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift?” pressed Jack. “Alfred Wegener was unable to provide a satisfactory explanation of the types of forces that were needed to push or pull the continents.

Jack summarized the facts that he was able to gather as follows: The world was joined together as a super continent called Pangaea. Over time the continents slowly drifted apart. He found evidence from land features, evidence from fossils, and evidence from climate. Scientists were reluctant to accept Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift, because he was unable to provide a satisfactory explanation of the forces that caused the continents to pull apart.

Discussion questions:

  1. Explain Alfred’s hypothesis of continental drift.
  2. What evidence did Alfred’s Wegener use to hypothesize that a supercontinent once existed?
  3. According to the hypothesis of continental drift, how would a map have changed over the last 250 million years?

Extension: (Synthesis)

  1. Using a map of the continents cut out each continent and arrange them to show what you think the world would look like 200 million years from now. Color, cut then glue.

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Chapter 3: Mid-Ocean Ridges and Sea-Floor Spreading

Vocabulary Building:

Mid- ocean ridgeAn underocean mountain chain where new ocean floor is produced at a divergent plate boundary.

SonarA device that determines the distance of an object under water by recording echoes of sound waves

Sea-floor spreadingA hypothesis that new sea floor is created at mid-ocean ridges and that in the process the continents are pushed apart from each other.

BasaltA dark, dense, igneous rock with a fine texture, found in oceanic crust.

TrenchA deep valley under the ocean where oceanic crust is pulled back into the mantle by sub-duction.

Sub-ductionThe process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a convergent plate boundary.

Jack remembered reading about the strangest features and bizarre creatures that live in the oceans. His dad told him that the features on the ocean floor provided the best evidence of continental drift. Jack wanted to learn more about the events that caused the continents to drift apart. Jack got his tablet and Google evidence of continental drift.

According to the search, in each of the five major oceans; Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Oceans, there is a mountain chain. This mountain range is called the Mid-Ocean Ridge. The Mid=Ocean Ridge snakes down the entire length of each of the major oceans of the world. This feature is one key feature that can explain the phenomenon that caused the continents to drift apart.

Jack continued his search to include the scientist who inadvertently discovered the evidence that eluded Alfred Wegener decades earlier. This scientist was Harry Hess. Hess used a device called sonar, to study the mid-ocean ridge. Hess proposeda phenomenon called Sea-Floor Spreading, to explain why the continents drifted apart. Sea-Floor Spreading causes the ocean floor to be pulled apart from both sides of the mid-ocean ridge, or mountain ranges. This happens at divergent plate boundaries found at the rift. The ocean floor is being pulled apart like conveyor belts carrying the continents with them. At the rift, on either side of the mid-ocean ridge, a volcano is present. The rift is like an opening or crackat the Mid-Ocean Ridge. The lava hardens as it erupts onto the surface of the ocean floor. As the lava hardens it adds new rock material or crust, to the ocean floor. The most common oceanic crust is basalt, a type of extrusive igneous rock.

Jack left his bedroom and went to his dad’s study. He knew his dad had several biographies and periodical about Harry Hess’s work. He pulled one of the periodicals from his dad’s library shelves. He scanned the Table of Contents until he found what he was looking for, “Evidence to support continental drift,” Jack whispered. Jack began to read. According to Harry Hess, the evidence that supported Sea-Floor Spreading came from three sources: 1) Evidence from Molten Material or lava cooling rapidly from erupting volcanoes. 2) Evidence from magnetic strips. As you learned earlier, the solid inner core of Earth contains iron. This created a magnetic field around the Earth. Scientists discovered that the rocks that make up the oceanic crust lies in a series of magnetized strips. When the scientists studied these magnetized strips, the discovered that the strips contained a record of all the Earth’s magnetic reversals. The rocks contained iron that aligned with the Earth’s magnetic field. This sealed the iron bits in the rocks in place giving the rock a sort of magnetic “memory”. 3) Evidence from drilling samples. When Hess brought up drilling samples of rocks taken from various sections of the ocean floor, he discovered that the newest rocks were found near the Mid-Ocean Ridge and the oldest rocks were found further away from the Mid-Ocean Ridges, at the deep ocean trenches.

“What is an ocean trench,” Jack whispered to himself. Putting down the periodical, Jack decided to look into the encyclopedia. He read that ocean trenches aredeep valleys miles deep under the ocean. At these deep ocean trenches, oceanic crust is pulled by gravity back into the mantle to be re-melted back into magma. The process by which the oceanic crust is pulled back into the mantle is called sub-duction.

Jack summarized that continental drift occurred as a result of sea-floor spreading, subduction, and convection currents in the asthenosphere of the mantle.

Discussion questions:

  1. Explain the processes that caused the continents to drift apart.
  2. Explain what three types of evidence provided support for the theory of sea-floor spreading?
  3. How do rocks along the mid-ocean ridge and trenches provide evidence of sea=floor spreading?

Extension: (Synthesis)

  1. What happens to oceanic crust at a deep ocean trench? Explain.

Chapter 4: Exploring the Ocean Floor

Vocabulary Building:

Continental shelfA gently sloping, shallow area of the ocean floor that extends outward from the edge of a continent.

Continental slopeA steep incline leading down from the edge of the continental shelf.

Continental marginThe shallow sea floor that is located between the shoreline and the deep-ocean bottom.

Continental rise The gently sloping area at the base of the continental slope.

GuyotFlat-topped seamount

SeamountA mountain on the ocean floor that is completely underwater

Abyssal plainthe vast floor of the deep oceans

Marianas TrenchThe deepest part of the world's oceans located in the Western Pacific. This is the location where the Pacific plate sub-ducts causing a trench.

Island arc A string of islands formed by the volcanoes along a deep-ocean trench.

The depths of the ocean remain largely unexplored. There are many creatures that remain to be discovered. Hollywood has been making many intriguing movies with monsters and other sea creatures. One of Jack’s favorite movies to watch is The Abyss. This epic film was taped underwater near the deepest ocean trench, the Mariana’s Trench. This movie piqued the interest of Jack. Jack knows that he will be learning about the different features of the ocean floor. In the movie, Jack wanted to study the ocean floor so that he could learn about all those features that he saw in the Abyss.

Jack went for his tablet, and began to Google features of the ocean floor. Here are some interesting features that he discovered. Jack read about the continents divided the major oceans. The continental shelf is a landmass that extends from a continent that is covered by water. This is similar to stepping from the beach into the ocean. It is an area of very shallow water. The continental slope is the steep incline of the continent, between the continental shelf and the abyssal plain. It is considered the sides of the continents as it dips steeply to the ocean floor. The continental margin includes the continental shelf, the continental slope, and the abyssal plain.The abyssal plain is the nearly flat ocean floor covered by thick layers of mud, silt, and dead plants and animal remains. Along the abyssal plain are guyots. Guyots are underwater volcanoes that have been flattened by weathering and erosion caused by deep ocean currents or waves. Guyots are completely submerged underwater. Seamounts are volcanoes that are completely submerged underwater. They look like volcanoes. Winding along the length of each major ocean is a mountain range called Mid-ocean Ridge. A rift is an opening on either side of the Mid-ocean Ridge. Volcanoes spew lava to the surface of the abyssal plain. Further along the abyssal plain is a deep canyon called a trench. The Marianas Trench is the deepest part of the oceans of the world. It is located in the western Pacific Ocean, off the Coast of Japan. It is about 2,550 kilometers deep. It is at the trenches that the oldest rocks are subducted back into the mantle. Volcanoes are found here. Volcanoes erupt over a hotspot in the Earth’s mantle, creating a chain of island called an island arc. The most famous islands are the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean.