E1. in Guatemala, the Juvenile Courts Are As Concerned with Protecting At-Risk Minors As

ENDNOTES

E1. In Guatemala, the juvenile courts are as concerned with protecting at-risk minors as they are with prosecuting and punishing minors who have committed an offense.

E2. Pointing out that the available institutional network to which at-risk minors might be directed was quite poor and deficient. Such a wellequipped center was a resource which the court could not permit itself the luxury of losing.

E3. As they explained to me, they had received some non-specific information regarding sexual abuse, pregnancies among the girls at the center that ended in abortion, and other similar acts. The center was practically described as a great bacchanalia. Nothing was said about that. It was, undoubtedly, false. A subtle, inexplicable rumor; from where -- or why -- it emerged I do not know, but it disappeared just as quickly. .

E4. The development of specific guidelines regarding cases of sexual abuse among institutionalized minors is a process that has also occurred in other European organizations working in the Third World like Child Villages SOS, an organization which also has some centers in Guatemala. Concerning this see Ullmann & Hilweg (2000). Further below we will make some reference to the discourse of these centers in relation to the theme of abuse.

E5. ONU mission to Guatemala.

E6. Hobbs, Hancks & Wynne (1993). Child Abuse and Neglect: Handbook for Clinicians. C Livingstone, Ed. Cited in Maideu (1999 p. 224).

E7. Finkelhor would be accused by some of defending moral conservatism, upon asserting that the sexual revolution had fostered in increase in sexual abuse. (Nathan & Snedeker, 2001) .

E8. The major portion of the ideas expressed here on the subject of the new Christian right are based on the work of this author.

E9. Along these lines it is of interest to us to cite, as an example, McCormack's arguments (cited in Osborne, 1993 p. 272), in pointing out that perhaps violence has been mistakenly utilized as a fetishized object within feminism, When the origin of the inequalities may be found in positive -- not negative -- strategies. Sentimentalizing women, romance novels, or the mystique of motherhood would be living cultural myths of far greater structural importance in terms of explaining certain social inequalities between the sexes.

E10. We recall that Herman published her famous book Father-Daughter Incest in 1981. This work would later be an obligatory referent among the promoters of ritual abuse, sexual abuse, and the recovery movement.

E11. A good example of the contradictions generated by the dilemma between marginality and poverty vs. deviance or sickness was the way in which young male prostitutes -- "chaperos" -- were dealt with during those years.Instead of being seen as boys who were driven to such activities because of their social situation, they were perceived and treated as perverted homosexuals, or even as victims of organized mafias. (Nathan & Snedeker, 2001 p. 45)

El2. The latter developed a therapeutic program of self-help and treatment groups for incestuous fathers which would then go on to be a model for the whole country. Giarretto applied this program in the Silicon Valley area, a prosperous enclave where, with many upper-class couples divorcing within a short space of time, numerous accusations of sexual abuse would emerge.

E13. This was asserted by authors such as Berliner, who actively participated in these programs (see Nathan & Snedeker, 2001 p. 25) and then went on to become a prominent researcher in the sexual abuse field.

E14. For the explication of this system, I shall fundamentally base myself on Nathan & Snedeker's research as published in their book Satan's Silence (2001). One may also review the work of Victor (1996), for another sociological analysis of the ritual abuse phenomenon. Also see the critical texts of Mitzel (1982) and Rubin (1982), or more recent referencesto it by authors such as Levine (2003) and Jenkins (2001).

E15. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. This clinical concept arose out of theories concerning the sequelae experienced by veterans of the Vietnam War.

E16. Cited in Ofshe & Watters, 1996 p. 80

E17. For the development of this section, I am going to base myself especially on Ofshe & Watters's (1996) book Making Monsters. False Memory, Psychotherapy, and Sexual Hysteria. One might bear in mind that practically all of the information regarding [244] the recovery movement that is provided here comes from these authors; I shall, therefore, avoid excessive bibliographical references, adding them only when necessary.

E18. (Isolated references from other works -- Reclaiming the Heart and The Courage to Heal -- cited by Ofshe & Watters, 1996 p. 113

E19. For a more detailed analysis, see the work of Hughes (1994) .

E20. He speaks of the "child abuse community" in reference to the scientific and professional community which is devoted to the problem of abuse against children.

E2l. Benatar, M. (1995). Running Away from Sexual Abuse: Denial Revisited. Families in Society76, 315-320.

E22. His History of Childhood, originally published in 1974, is a much-cited book in publications on child sexual abuse. DeMause 's theory is clearly consonant with the abuse as well as recovered memory discourses.

E23. It would, in my opinion, be interesting to carry out a detailed study of how, when, and where the anxiety over child sexual abuse first emerged, similar to the one undertaken by Pfohl (1977) on physical maltreatment and radiologists' role in bringing it to public attention.

E24. "Date rape": a term which refers to rape by persons one has some acquaintance with, including partners or dates, and which would allow the broadening of the definition of what constitutes rape to spheres such as marriage.

E25. Ofshe & Watters, 1996 p. 10)

E26. References to these authors are commonplace in articles and books published not only in the United States and Great Britain but also in Germany (see Ullmann & Hilweg, 2000) as well as in Spain. In the latter case, one might take a look at the review by Cantón & Cortés (1997), the various works by López on the topic (1993, 1994), or Vázquez Mezquita's (1995) manual oriented. towards forensic practice.

E27. Prominent among them are, for example, Herman, Briere, Williams, and Putnam.

E28. International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect.

E29. American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children. Their periodical is the Journal of Interpersonal Violence.

E30. The last of these, to cite just one example, is a prominent expert on trauma repression theories. According to Ofshe & Watters, Lenore Terr was a witness in the 1990 George Franklin trial. This man was accused and convicted of the murder of a girl that had supposedly been committed some twenty years earlier. The only evidence on which the accusation was based were the recollections of his daughter, Eileen Franklin, whose memory had returned during the process of therapy. In said process of therapy, supposedly hidden memories of abuse and rape were "recovered." Finally, the patient recalled having seen her father murder a friend of hers -- the crime was a real one, and had never been solved -- and thereafter legal proceedings were initiated. Lenore Terr, who would later write a bestseller about the case, testified at trial, explaining her theory of repressed trauma and the therapeutic process that was carried out with the patient. Her testimony was decisive in convicting the accused, on the basis of that evidence alone.

E31. I am referring to Williams, J .M., Briere, J., Conte, J., Herman, J., and Schatzow , E.

E32. Cited in Ofshe & Watters, 1996; 10. Andrea Dworkin is a prominent feminist who led the antipornography movement.

E33. From the prologue to the Spanish edition of Bezemer's (1994) book, written by Belén Nogueiras and the women of the Health Space Team for Women Among Ourselves.

E34. 1996; 571

E35. 1996; 571

E36. As Weeks points out, homosexuality has, historically, been associated with the corruption of minors.

E37. This is a reference index for everything published in professional journals which is related to the field of psychology.

E38. Chrysalis. 1: 31-45. In this work. Rush makes reference to Freud's alleged denial of the veracity of his patients' memories of abuse.

E39. New York: Prentice-Hall. Bass & Davis, authors of The Courage to Heal, describe Rush's book as a "lucid feminist analysis of the sexual abuse of children, from biblical times on up to the present day. Rush was a pioneer in the uncovering of Freud's concealment." (1995 p. 589)

E40. Spanish Ed., Masson, J. (1985).

E41. It is curious how this same author introduced his own attachment theory which, as he himself points out, is presented as a substitute for Freudian Oedipal theory, paving the way for absolving the child of any responsibility for the seduction since, he asserts, it is a need for affective intimacy that has nothing to do with the sexual. (López 1993 p. 222)

E42. Ofshe & Watters, 1996; 296)

E43. (1983). Child Abuse and Neglect 7, 177-193. He has also written articles concerning the repression 'of memories and the societal refusal to acknowledge them.

E44. Ofshe & Watters, 1996; 195)

E45. This is the name of the McMartin pre-schoolers' parents' movement, following the 1983 allegations of ritual abuse by teachers. The accusations were never proven. See Money (1999)

E46. Ofshe & Watters, 1996 p. 195

E47. These authors note that given the results of the research into abuse -- and they base this on Finkelhor's articles on the effects of abuse -- it is no wonder that in clinical populations one finds high numbers of past experiences of abuse. For women in treatment the prevalence figures range between 13% and 44%; for men they are between 0% and 20%. In cases of patients with multiple personality, they assert, the prevalence approaches 90%, 71% among patients with borderline personality disorder, and some 60%for patients with eating disorders. Looking at things in this way, they comment, it is surprising that one can still find many therapists who do not immediately ask their patients about such experiences. (Pruitt & Kappius, 1992 p. 474)

E48. Bass & Davis,The Courage to Heal Cited in Ofshe & Watters, 1996 p. 79.

E49. Kinsey cites, along these lines, studies from 1929, 1931, and 1940.

E50. Ramey, J.W. (1979). Dealing with the Last Taboo. SIECUS Report. New York. SIECUS is the acronym "for the <e> Sex Information and Education Council of the U.S.

E51. Mary Calderone, Wardell Pomeroy, and Albert Ellis were also at this meeting.

E52. (1978). New York: Hawthorn.

E53. Another example from Ullerstam: "Elsa-Brita Nordlund, for her part, believes that under certain conditions. such cases have been shown to leave emotional scars. Nevertheless, she does not believe that sexual approaches can have pronounced pathogenic effects in and of themselves, provided that the guilty party does not employ violence. In reality, what traumatizes the child is his or her mother's harsh and hysterical response. -Anna-Lisa Annell concurs with this. A priori, one may well imagine that children would be disturbed by the manipulations of an "old scoundrel" when his/her parents had previously inculcated him/her with a fear of sexuality. In such cases, one could say that the parents are more pathogenic than the old scoundrel. This problem of mental hygiene has, then, its solution in parents learning how to demonstrate common sense as well as calm." (1999 p. 71)

E54. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

E55. Herman, J.L., Schatzow, E. (1984). Time-Limited Group Therapy for Women with a History of Incest. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy 34(4): 605-16.

E56. <e> <i> Psychoanalytic Psychology <Ii> <Ie> 4(1): 1-14.

E57. New York: Basic Books.

E58. Ofshe & Watters, 1996; 224

E59. Ofshe & Watters illustrate that characteristic methodological deficit in the research by commenting on the historical debate over whether bulimia is a reflection of sexual abuse experiences in childhood. There have been various theories to explain bulimia, from biochemical alterations to cultural models of beauty or kinds of family relationships. It was in the late 1980s, in parallel with the rise of the recovery movement, that child sexual abuse was introduced as the source of said eating disorder. It came to be established that one could suspect abuse in any patient with an eating disorder -- including "anorexia or obesity -- and that some 90% of these persons had suffered sexual abuse. In conclusion the authors cite some studies clearly rejecting any sort of correlation between the two phenomena, which also methodologically question the validity of other works that certainly did find a close relationship.

E60. This includes a variety of behaviors, such as "sexualized" play withdolls, the introduction of objects into the anus or vagina, excessive or public masturbation, seductive behavior. soliciting sexual stimulation from adults or other children, age-inappropriate knowledge, etc The relationship between these researchers and the recovery movement is made newly evident here. In concrete terms. see an article as well as a "personal communication" by Frank Putnam. an expert on multiple personality, where he points out that he has detected high hormone levels among girls who have suffered abuse and in those who hit puberty a year early. This, Kendall-Tackett, Williams & Finkelhor assert, suggests how deep and penetrating the impact of sexual abuse can end up being. (1993 p. 173) Williams has also researched the topic of the repression of sexual abuse experiences in clinical populations, coming to conclusions which -- in the opinion of Ofshe & Watters -- are absolutely unfounded.

E61. Based on a news item broadcast on Telediario at 2:30p.m. on June 3, 1998 on the Spanish TV network "Tele 5." .

E62. We encounter this same phenomenon in Central America. Thus for example, in a conference on abuse and prostitution, a presentetr who was a member of a Central American child protection organization (PRONICE) explained how when we talk about sexual abuse we have to include not only rape, which would be the most violent and coarse manifestation of abuse, but also, for example, exhibitionism. There can also be many kinds of rape, using an object or a finger, with the common denominator being the sexual gratification of the adult. :It is true, it would be said, that there would need to be some sort of sexual gratification; though this would not be limited to touching the genitals or achieving orgasm, there would have to be sexual gratification. Nevertheless, be careful about play that gets out of hand. I do not want to "demonize," he says literally, but be wary, be wary of parents and caregivers who play around too much with the children's genitalia because they could unduly accelerate their sexual development and set their sexual education off on the wrong track. Later on, in the question-and-answer period, a nurse asked him what he thought about taking children's temperature anally at the hospital. He was asked that because of his commentaries concerning children. She said that she feared she was committing some sort of abuse. But he told her that, no, one would have to have the intention, a desire on the perpetrator's part, for it to be abuse.

E63. See, e.g., Cantón & Cortés (1999) or EcheburGa & Guerricaechevarría (2000).

E64. Santamartin, J. (Ed.) (1999). Violence Against Children. Ariel. Barcelona. Part of the "Studies of Violence" series of the Queen Sophia Center for the Study of Violence.

E65. In the work by Frey (2003), published in our own country, and which is in line with the recovery movement, one can find a theory based on the notion of treachery, that one should always assume the presence of sexual abuse.

E66. Javier Urra now holds the position of "Defender of the Minor of the Madrid Community" and is past president of the European Network of Defenders of the Minor.

E67. According to Johnson (2001), in 1990 Bill Bratton, the Chief of the New York Transit Police, introduced a "zero tolerance" policy, following which they would make arrests and initiate proceedings even in minor cases. In 1993 Rudolph Giuliani -- who would later become internationally famous as the mayor of that city during the attack on the Twin Towers of September 11, 2001 -- who was then the New York Police Commissioner, gave Bratton the opportunity to apply said policy citywide.

E68. In Spain accusations were being made against priests, in the wake of the American campaigns against the Catholic church and its attitude towards these acts. We already have an association called "Church Without Abuse" (El País 3/9/04), whose goal appears to be to put an end to the church's intolerable silence and force it to publicly pursue, report, and condemn such acts and those responsible for them, and moreover to do so in an exemplary way.

E69. See, along these lines, some ideas in the journalistic work of Santiago (2004), in relation to the theme of pornography on the Internet and the self-serving use of falsehoods on the part of law enforcement.

E70. In the same way, according to a Berliner & Conte study cited by Pellegrin & Wagner (1990 p. 57), minor victims of abuse receive support and protection from the non-abusing parent -- normally the mother -- in 60% of intra-familial sexual abuse cases and 85% of extra-familial ones.

E71. For their part, Garbarino and Stoff (1993 p. 126) comment on some studies that evaluated professionals' tendency to report cases of sexual abuse that they had become aware of. In general, a large percentage of the professionals interviewed, which hovered around 40% in the various studies cited, noted their reluctance to officially report cases, though other variables would of course intervene, such as the victim retracting his or her statements, the opinions of those involved as well as family members, or their own means of dealing with the matter.

E72. To assume that one can extract useful data as to how an individual would behave in a hypothetical cases is, in my opinion, a fundamental mistake; moreover, this would have to be based on a hypothesys where the three pieces of data provided are pitifully simplistic And the alleged victim's age isn't provided either! Unfortunately, there are no other types of studies to refer to.

E73. Finkelhor, 1984 p. 80.

E74. In fact, Finkelhor (1984) asserts, what is worrying is that parents do not evince particular concern for the status of their child in general, and perhaps the latter's "apparent" resilience would persuade them that they had a serious problem. From there he insists on the need to inform the population regarding the harmful consequences that these sorts of acts have for minors, and the need -- thanks to it being reported -- to seek out some kind of therapy. That is to say, what is not viewed as grave or dangerous must be shown to be so in order to obtain that cooperation in the public reporting of these acts. Paralleling this argumentation would be that of protecting the common welfare from a potential danger, arresting those responsible for the abuse, and facilitating their re-integration into normality. In that way, it will be said, one avoids the creation of new victims.