Chapter 6
Collecting qualitative data
Suggested solutions to questions and exercises
1. What are the main methods of qualitative data collection?
The main methods of qualitative data collection are:
· Observation
· Qualitative interviewing
Qualitative interviewing can take a variety of forms; the most popular are in-depth interviews and group discussions, including online qualitative research, and panels, juries and workshops.
2. What does qualitative observational research entail? What are the advantages of observation over interviewing?
There are two kinds of observation: simple observation and participant observation. Simple observation involves watching and recording people and activity, for example, in a supermarket or hospital waiting area or in the respondent’s home, whatever setting is relevant to the research. If the researcher is present, he or she makes notes about the behaviour, about incidents, routines and body language (and may record the activity on video). For example, the researcher might observe how staff in a car showroom deal with customers, noting how long a potential customer is allowed to browse before being approached by a staff member, the way in which the staff member greets the customer, the type of information he or she gives the customer, the length of time spent with the customer, the demeanour and body language of the staff member and the customer, the outcome of the encounter and so on. If the researcher is not present, the activity may be taped and this record viewed and analysed later. The observation allows the researcher to gather data on what people do rather than what they say they do. In order to understand why the respondent behaves in a particular way, the recording of the observation may be played back to the respondent as a reminder, and the researcher may ask about the activity, and thoughts and feelings at the time.
Participant observation is when the researcher is involved in or part of the activity or task being observed. Accompanied shopping is an example of participant observation: the researcher goes with the respondent on a shopping trip, listening, observing and/or recording his or her behaviour on audio or videotape, making notes, and may ask questions for clarification or understanding or to note the respondent’s thoughts and feelings – collecting data relevant to the research objectives.
The main advantage of observation over interviewing is that in an interview the respondent is recalling and recounting his or her behaviour to the researcher whereas in observation the researcher sees it at first hand – without the filter of memory or selection.
3. How does a qualitative interview differ from a quantitative interview?
Quantitative interviews are standardised – the questions are worded in exactly the same way and asked in the same order in each interview – and most of the questions are structured rather than open-ended and non-directive. Qualitative interviews are less standardised and less structured – they are more like real conversations. They are thus more flexible than quantitative interviews: the interviewer has the freedom to react to what the respondent is saying and adapt the interview accordingly. He or she can alter the way the questions are asked, the order in which they are asked and can insert follow-up questions, if the respondent mentions something that the researcher would like to clarify, or explore in greater detail.
4. How should a qualitative interview be structured? Why is it important to have a clear introduction and a wind-down period towards the end of the interview?
A qualitative interview should have a clear introduction and ‘warm-up’ phase and a clearly signalled ending or ‘wind-down’ period.
A clear introduction is vital – from an ethical point of view and in order to put the respondent(s) at ease. It is likely that they will be nervous and it is the interviewer’s or moderator’s job to allay any fears about what is involved and help the respondent relax. The introduction should include information on the following:
· you, the researcher (your name, the organisation you work for)
· the purpose of the research and the topic
· how long the interview is going to take
· your role as interviewer or moderator
· how and why they were chosen
· assurances about confidentiality and/or anonymity
· permission to tape the interview
· whether the interview is being observed and by whom, and obtain their consent
· how the information will be used
· assurance that their participation is voluntary and that they are free to leave and free to refuse to answer any questions
· the ‘ground rules’.
It is a good idea to start to the interview with relatively straightforward, general questions or topics that respondents will find easy to answer or talk about – this helps create a relaxed atmosphere and helps establish rapport between interviewer and respondents. It is possible then to move on to more specific questions or more difficult topics. This technique is known as ‘funnelling’.
It is important to signal the end of the interview or discussion – about 10 minutes before the end of an hour long session, and about 15 minutes before the end of one and a half to two-hour session. This ensures that the respondent does not feel that the interview comes to an abrupt end or that you have used them in any way. Some useful wind-down strategies include presenting a summary of the main points and asking for final comments; asking respondents if there is anything that they have not said that they would like to say, or anything they have said and wish they had not; and asking what one thought or idea the respondent(s) would like the client to take from the session.
5. Describe the role of the qualitative interviewer or moderator. What skills are needed to undertake the role?
The role of the interviewer or moderator is to set up, manage and conduct fieldwork and analyse, interpret and report the findings from the research. Key tasks in executing this role include:
· Understanding the research brief
· Briefing and liaising with recruiters
· Managing the fieldwork process
· Designing the interview guide
· Conducting the interview or discussion
· Creating an atmosphere in which respondents are willing to talk and share
· Managing the group dynamics and process to best advantage
· Listening attentively
· Relating what is being said to the research brief
· Deciding what to explore and in how much detail
· Deciding when to probe or challenge, ask for clarification, or summarise
· Analysing and interpreting the data and reporting the findings
The key skills needed for the role include:
· Personal capacity for empathy, sensitivity, imagination and creativity
· Ability to become involved and yet remain detached
· Articulate but a good listener
· Intellectual ability but common sense
· Capacity for logical analysis
· Conceptual ability and eye for detail
· Think analytically yet tolerate disorder
· Verbal skills
· Confidence to handle verbal presentations
6. What is the role of an assistant moderator? In what circumstances might it be useful to have an assistant moderator?
The role of an assistant moderator is primarily to help the moderator run the fieldwork effectively and efficiently. The assistant moderator may be a trainee researcher, and besides his or her role in assisting or note-taking, is there to learn. In some cases, the discussion may be split between the moderator and an assistant moderator, with one maintaining the discussion and the other introducing new topics and handling stimulus material. The role is a particularly useful one when there is a lot of stimulus or other material to cover, or when there is a tight deadline to meet. If, for example, there is a lot of material to cover or a lot of stimulus material to get through, the assistant moderator may take charge of handling the stimulus material, or he or she may take charge of the recording, the catering or the paper work, freeing the moderator up to run the discussion. In projects with tight deadlines, his or her role may be to take detailed notes – this can speed up the analysis process.
7. Describe what is meant by an in-depth interview. For what reasons would you choose to use in-depth interviews? In what circumstances would it be useful to use paired depth interviews?
An in-depth interview is a qualitative interview conducted by a qualitative researcher on a one-to-one basis with a respondent who has been chosen according to the agreed recruitment criteria for the project. The aim of the interview is to explore a topic in depth, and so the interview will last from about 45 minutes to two hours, depending on the topic and what has to be covered. The researcher uses an open-ended interview approach. The interview may take place in the respondent's home, workplace, central location or viewing facility – depending on the nature of the topic. Typically the interview is tape-recorded.
You would use in-depth interviews if:
· Your topic is of a sensitive or intimate nature
· You need to get detailed information on individual attitudes and behaviour
· You need to get beyond the socially acceptable view
· You need ‘time-line’ or longitudinal information (for example, to follow a decision-making process)
· Your sample is difficult to find
Paired depths are useful in two situations. Firstly, some people, particularly children and teenagers, find it less intimidating and embarrassing to be interviewed with someone rather than alone. Secondly, the research objectives of a particular study may mean that it is necessary to determine what goes on during a decision-making process that involves more than one person – for example, in buying a car. It may be important to find out who takes on what role, for example, to determine who is the purchase influencer and who is the buyer or the financier.
8. Describe what is involved in a group discussion. For what reasons would you choose group discussions as your main method of data collection? In what circumstances would you use mini-groups?
A standard group discussion involves eight to ten people (ten to twelve people in the US). Respondents are recruited for the group according to criteria relevant to the topic under investigation. A skilled qualitative researcher, known as a moderator or facilitator, guides the discussion. The discussion usually lasts about an hour-and-a-half to two hours, giving enough time to explore a range of issues related to the research topic in some depth. Should it be necessary to research the topic in greater depth, the duration of the group may be extended to two hours or more. Groups usually take place in a central location, for example, a meeting room in a hotel or, more commonly nowadays, at a viewing facility; some groups take place in the home of the person who recruited the respondents.
You would use group discussions if:
· You need to see a wide range of attitudes and opinions
· You need to determine differences between people
· You do not need minority views or views not influenced by the group
· You want to understand social and cultural influences
· You need to draw out creative thinking/solutions
A mini-group, as its name suggests, is a cut-down version of a group with usually about four to six respondents rather than eight to ten. It lasts an hour to an hour and a half – rather than an hour and a half to two hours. Mini-groups are appropriate if the topic is a sensitive one, or if it is particularly difficult to recruit respondents.
9. Why are projective techniques useful? Describe three different projective techniques and give examples of the sorts of studies in which they might be used.
Projective techniques are indirect forms of questioning that are deliberately vague and ambiguous. They are often used in qualitative research, and in particular, in attitude research, because they are useful in getting beyond the rational response to the ‘private’ and the ‘non-communicable’. The idea is that respondents will ‘project’ their ideas, feelings, emotions and attitudes in completing the task. In doing so, responses are elicited that respondents may not have been able or willing to give via direct questioning.
There are several types of techniques – techniques of association, completion, construction and expressive techniques. In a word association exercise, respondents are asked for the first word that comes to mind when they hear or see another word. This type of exercise is used to explore connections between things, to uncover the language used in relation to the issue under investigation and to understand what words are associated with brands or products. In a mapping exercise, respondents are asked to sort group brands or products or organisations according to a set of criteria; they may be asked to re-sort according to another set. The aim is to understand how they see a market or a business environment. In a guided fantasy the interviewer guides the respondent in thinking about the last time he or she experienced something – for example, tried a product or went on holiday. The aim is to help the respondent remember the experience in detail and the thoughts and feelings associated with it. The information may be used for product or advertising development, for example.