CNM Nutritional Biochemistry Workbook

CNM

The College of Naturopathic Medicine

Nutritional Biochemistry Revision Workbook

-Please note there is no answer booklet, this is to assist study only

Prepared by Holly Taylor

Section 1 - Chemistry

Definitions – Provide definitions and examples for the following

Chemical entity / Definition / Example
a) Matter
b) Atom
c) Element
d) Ion
e) Molecule
f) Compound
g) Hydrophilic molecule
h) Hydrophobic molecule

Which four elements are the major constituents of the human body?

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CNM Nutritional Biochemistry Worksheet

Atomic structure - Label the follow picture of an atom

The periodic table – Fill in the gaps

The periodic table is a list of all of the known …………………………………arranged into periods that show us which……………………. have similar ……………………….and physical properties.

Label the following picture

The number that is assigned to each element correlates to the amount of...... and………………in each element

Give the chemical symbol for the following elements

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CNM Nutritional Biochemistry Worksheet

Hydrogen =

Carbon =

Nitrogen =

Oxygen =

Sulfur =

Potassium =

Sodium=

Magnesium=

Iron =

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CNM Nutritional Biochemistry Worksheet

Counting subatomic particles - Complete the following table

Element / Number of protons / Number of neutrons / Number of electrons

What is an isotope?

Give an example of an element with 2 abundant stable isotopes

Electron shells - Fill in the gaps

The bonding properties of an element are dependant on the amount of ……………it has it its outer shell.

Atoms are always trying to ………………their outer shells.

Some elements do not easily react as they have their outer shell……………… to the perfect number. We call these substances……………….

The……………………in an elements outer shell are called the ……………… ……………….

Oxidation and reduction – Complete the following

Oxidation is ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reduction is …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

When oxidation and reduction happen together is it known as a ……………… reaction.

Why is oxidation important in the human body?

What is a free radical and what kind of damage do they cause?

Suggest 3 things that contribute to our free radical load

What is an antioxidant and how does it work?

Bonding

The 2 types of bonding are (Given the proper term and a description of what happens to the electron)

a) ………………………………………………………………………………………….

b) …………………………………………………………………………………………..

Fill in the gaps

…………………………bonds are formed when one element has more electron pulling power than the other element in the bond. This results in an ……………………distribution of charge where one end of the molecule is ………………….. ………………….. and the other end is …………………………… ……………………….

Name the four most electronegative elements

Draw a picture of a hydrogen bond and given an example of a substance in which you might find hydrogen bonding occurring

Example……………………………………………….

Fill in the gaps

Van der Waals forces are an ………………..reaction that occurs in …….. molecules and atoms. It happens because electrons are………………..

At any one instant the electrons might find themselves towards one end of the molecule, making that end slightly…………….This leaves the other end temporarily short of electrons so it becomes slightly……………………

Explain the term dipole ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Please shade in the molecules below and add positive and negative charges to show how Van der Waals force help to hold a substance together

Fill in the gaps

Van der Waals force between molecules are much ……………..than the covalent bonds.Bigger molecules with more electrons form …………… Van der Waals forces. ………, ………… molecules can develop bigger temporary dipoles due to electron movement than ……………., …………. Ones. Straight molecules can also get closed to each other than bent molecules so the attraction forces are……………………

Electrolytes – Answer the following

What is an electrolyte?

Give 3 important biological functions of electrolytes

Acids and bases

An acid is ……………………………………….………………………………………………

Example: ……………………………………………………………………………………….

A base is ………………………………………………………………………………………..

Example: ………………………………………………………………………..………………

What scale is used to measure acidity and basicity?

Where does water appear on this scale?

Acid + Base => ……………………… + ………………………

Buffers – Complete the following

Buffers are substances that maintain the ………………… concentration, to help the body maintain homeostasis.

Some buffer bind ……………….. and other bind …………………………

Give an example of a buffer system used by the body

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Energy – Complete the following

The law of conservation of energy states that……………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Name 4 different types of energy

Changes of state

Label the 3 boxes below with the names of the 3 main states of matter then draw a sketch of how closely the particles in each state are arranged. Underneath briefly describe the properties of each state in terms of shape volumes and particle speed

Chemical reactions – Fill in the gaps

A reaction occurs when …………………. are broken or created. The starting materials are known as……………………and the end materials are called………………….. All reaction involve a transfer of ………………….. For a reaction to occur the molecules must………………………with the correct ………………. The minimum ………………. At which a reaction will occur is called the energy of ………………

An endogonic reaction is …………………………………………………………….

An exergonic reaction ………………………………………………………………..

Give 3 physical properties a chemical reaction can be affected by

Explain what a catalyst does………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……....

Explain what an inhibitor does…………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………

Complete the following table

Type of reaction / Schematic / Endo- or exer- gonic?
Anabolic
Synthesis/Building reaction
AB => A + B
Exchange reaction / Can be either

A reversible reaction exists in a state of …………………………….…….. where there is always some reactants and some products present.

When water is the medium that breaks down a molecule into smaller pieces it is called a ……………………………… reaction

When water is formed as a waste product during an anabolic reaction, it is known as a …………………………. …………………………… reaction

What is special about reversible reactions?

Give a brief outline of Le Chateliers principle

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Functional groups

Place the name the following functional beside each diagram

Outline the key properties of each group

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CNM Nutritional Biochemistry Worksheet

R-S-H

R-O-H

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Section 2 - Carbohydrates

Give 3 examples of carbohydrates

What 3 elements are carbohydrates made up of?

Complete this table

Diagram / Type of carbohydrate / Number of units / Examples
/ Glucose
/ 2
/ Polysaccharide

Give 2 properties of a polysaccharide that make it different to the other two type of carbohydrate

a)………………………………………………………………………………………

b)………………………………………………………………………………………

What kind of bonds are found between the sugar molecules of a carbohydrate?

What kind of reaction is needed to join sugar molecules together?

Explain the term isomer…………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Name the 2 different types of starch

What is glycogen and what is it used for?

Fill in the gaps

Cellulose is structural material of ……………………. It is a …………………… polymer. Human don’t have the …………… required to break these beta (1,4) glycosidic bonds, so cellulose is not digestible by humans and is often referred to as ……………. ………….. Some animals, particularly ………………. and …………………., can digest cellulose with the help of …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Suggest 3 functions of carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are progressively digested at 3 different sites in the body. Name the 3 sites and outline what happens there

What is the name of the main carbohydrate digesting enzyme? ......

The glucose form carbohydrate digestion can be used in a number of processes. Name 3 of them

Section 3 - Lipids

Which 3 elements are lipids made up of?

What is different about the elements and bonding in lipids compared to carbohydrates?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

In what form are lipids transported around the body?......

Label the following diagram

Fill in the gaps

Triglycerides are formed by a ………………………. …………………………. reaction and broken down by …………………………..

Give 3 functions of triglycerides

Explain the difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………...

Give the omega name for the following type of fat ………………………………………………….

Put 2 hydrogen atoms on the carbon double bonds below and label them cis and trans

C=C ………………….. C=C …………………

Which type - cis or trans - is favoured and why? ……………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Explain the term essential fatty acid and give one example from each of the 2 families

An EFA is ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Example 1………………………………. Family = ………………………………….

Example 2………………………………. Family = ………………………………….

Name 5 functions of EFAs

Why should you never heat polyunsaturated fats and EFA’s?

What is a lipoprotein?

Which type of lipoprotein do we refer to as good cholesterol? ......

Complete this table

Type of lipoprotein / Function
Carry triglycerides from the intestines to the liver, muscles and adipose tissue
VLDL
LDL
Collect cholesterol from body tissues and takes it back to the liver

Label and name the molecule below. Where would you expect to find it in the body?

What is special property does this type of molecule have and what is the scientific term for this?

i)……………………………………………………………………………………………

ii)…………………………………………………………………………………………...

Give an example of a steroid and name the molecule from which steroids are made in the body.

i)……………………………………………………………………………………………

ii)…………………………………………………………………………………………...

Describe the role of the following in fat digestion

Bile ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Pancreatic lipase………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Small intestine…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section 4 - Proteins and amino acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. They are formed from the elements ……………………, ……………………., ……………………, and …………………. Some also contain …………………..

……………… amino acids are found in human proteins

Every amino acid has a ……………………………. group and an ……………………………. group.

Each individual amino acids has a …………………… that determines the amino acid’s characteristics. This is usually labelled as ………..

Label this diagram

Give the names of the four different categories of amino acid an a specific example for each one.

1………………………………………………….. e.g.……………………………………………..

2………………………………………………….. e.g.……………………………………………..

3…………………………………………………... e.g.………………………………………………

4……………………………………………………. e.g.……………………………………………..

Explain the following terms and give an example of each

Essential amino acid……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Example……………………………

Non-essential amino acid………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Example …………………………

Conditionally essential amino acid………………………………………………………………………………….

Example…………………………..

Fill in the gaps

Amino acids come in mirror images called ………………………………….

These mirror images are either called the D or the L form. The human body only recognises the ……………form.

Amino acids are joined together in ……………………………. reactions to make protein chains called …………………..

The bonds formed are called …………………. bonds

Explain the following terms and give an example

Dipeptide…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Example……………………………………………………….

Tripeptide…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Example……………………………………………………….

All free amino acids plus charged amino acids in peptide bonds can act as …………………………………

Where in a protein would you expect to find a polar amino acid and why?

Explain what is meant by the term primary protein structure.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Give 2 examples of secondary structure you might find in a protein molecule

ii)

Explain what the tertiary structure of a protein is and why it is important

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

What is a disulfide bond and why is it important?

Explain what the quaternary structure of a protein is

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Explain denaturation …………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

What might cause a protein to misfold?

Give 5 functions of protein in the human body

Describe the role of the following in protein digestion

Stomach………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Pancreas……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Small intestine ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Summary - Macromolecules

Complete this table

Macromolecule / Building blocks / Type of bond / Reaction formed by / Reaction broken down by
Protein / Dehydration synthesis
Carbohydrate / Monosaccharides
Triglyceride / Hydrolysis

Section 5 - Nucleic acids

Name the 2 most common nucleic acids

Label the following diagram of a nucleotide

Name the 4 nucleotide used to make DNA

What is different about the nucleotides in RNA?

Explain the differences between the structure of DNA and RNA

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fill in the complementary RNA base sequence for this strand of DNA

A G C T T G C G A

In base pairing a ………………………. always pairs with a ……………………………

Base pair are held together by …………………………….. bonds.

What are the 2 main functions of DNA?

What is the main function of RNA?

Fill in the gaps

The sequence of bases in DNA is called the ……………….. code. The code is what’s called a ………………….. code. The bases are read in sets of ……………… Each set is called a …………….

Each …………… corresponds to a specific ………………. ………………. or a start or stop at the end of a protein chain.

Name the 2 stages of protein synthesis and briefly describe what happens.

Stage 1 …………………………………………

What happens

Stage 2 …………………………………………

What happens

Section 6 - Enzymes

What is an enzyme? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The molecules enzymes react with are called ……………………………

Enzymes generally end in the suffix …………………

Many biological reactions are very………………….. Enzymes ……………… reactions by temporarily binding to one or more reactants, providing an alternative ……………. ……………., which has a lower ……………….. ………………..

Give 3 properties of enzymes

Explain how enzymes work using the lock and key analogy

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Some enzymes require…………………for activity, these can be metal ions or derivatives of vitamins. The protein part of the enzyme without its cofactors is known as the …………………………..

Explain how the following can affect enzymes

Substrate concentration

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Temperature

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Draw a typical graph to show how the above parameters affect enzyme activity

Substrate concentration Temperature pH

Explain the following terms

Inhibitor

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

Reversible inhibitor ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

Competitive inhibitor ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

Non-competitive inhibitor ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…

Where might an inhibitor be used?

Section 7 – Energy production

ATP

What does ATP stand for? …………………………………………………………………………………………

What are the 3 building blocks of ATP?

What is the main function of ATP?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ATP + H2O + ATPase => ……….. + …………… + ………………

What type of reaction is this? …………………………………..

This reaction can also go back the other way to store energy, catalysed by …………………………………

The energy is generally supplied by the process of ………………… ……………………

The addition of a phosphate group is called …………………………..

Which mineral binds to ATP and aid the release the energy?

Give 4 functions of ATP

Name the 2 processes by which ATP can be made and where in the cell they occur

1………………………………………

Occurs in ……………………….

2……………………………………….

Occurs in ………………………..

NAD+ and FAD

NAD+ and FAD are …………… carrying molecules. They carry high energy …………………………

NAD+ ………………………. substrates by stealing H-. In this process NAD+ is ……………….. and becomes …………………..

FAD can……………………… other molecules to become ……………….

NAD+ is used in enzyme-catalysed …………………….. reactions e.g. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

FAD is used in ……………… energy production and …………….. metabolism

NAD+ can be synthesised from the amino acids ………………… or ………………………. It can also be obtained from vitamin ……………

FAD is derived from ……………………………….. also known as vitamin ……………..

Energy from carbohydrates

What is the name of the process where glucose is oxidised to form ATP?

What are the four steps of glucose metabolism?

Glycolysis

The process of glycolysis turns …………………….. into 2 …………………. molecules. There is an input of ………. ATP molecules and an output of ………. ATP molecules. Net gain of ATP is ………..

In …………………….. conditions, glycolysis is the primary energy production pathway. When no oxygen is present …………………….. stays in the ………………. And is degraded to waste products

In yeast pyruvate is converted to ………………………..

In muscle cells pyruvate is converted to ……………… ………………. This occurs because in anaerobic conditions ………………….. cannot be recycled in the electron transport chain. To allow energy production to continue ……………… gives its H- to …………………. This ……………… reaction turn pyruvate into ……………….. ……………….

Coenzyme A

Coenzyme A is a ……………….. molecule which is a form of ……………… …...... also known as vitamin ……….. It carries energy as an easily transferable high-energy bond with an……………. group.

Acetyl CoA formation is catalysed by ……………….. ……………………. Pyruvate loses a carbon as ……………….. ……………… then joins to Coenzyme A

Kreb cycle

Where does the Kreb cycle occur?

What happens to the 2 carbons from pyruvate during the Kreb cycle?

Where is the energy generated by the Kreb cycle transferred to?

How many turns of the Kreb cycle are there for each glucose molecule?

The electron transport chain

The electron carriers………….. and ……………… transfer their electrons to the electron transport chain. This is a chain of ………………….. electron carrier embedded in the ……………………………… ………………………………. The electrons are passed from one electron acceptor to the next and successively give up ……………………..

The energy lost from the electrons is used to ………………………………………………………….. This creates an ……………………………. where there are more ………ions on one side of the membrane than the other.

At the end of the chain the electron combine with …………… and …………… to form water. The …… ……………….. is used to drive phosphorylation of ADP to produce ………..

Name 4 nutrients needed for the electron transport chain

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The energy released from NADH can be used to make ………. ATP

The energy released form FADH2 can be used to make ………. ATP

Summary – Energy production – Complete this diagram

Overall the reaction is

C6H12O6 + ……O2 +…..ADP’s+ ……P……CO2 +….H2O +…..ATP

Which group of vitamins is essential for energy production?

Energy from fats

In the absence of sufficient………………………… fatty acids can be used for energy production. Fat metabolism is stimulated by…………………. and inhibited by …………………

………………….. splits fatty acids from adipose tissue. Fatty acids are then carried by ……………… ………………… to the liver where …………….. occurs.

What is the name of the process used to degrade fatty acids and where does it occur?

Name………………………………..

Occurs in………………………………

Explain how the glycerol component of a fat can be used to produce energy

Which nutrient helps transport fatty acids into the mitochondria?

What are the 4 steps of beta-oxidation

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CNM Nutritional Biochemistry Worksheet

How many carbons are cleaved off a fatty acid by each cycle of beta oxidation and which molecule do they become?

Number of carbons =

Released as…………………………………….

Name the 3 products of beta-oxidation and explain which energy production system they are used in

1………………………………. Used in………………………………..

2..……………………………. Used in………………………………..

3………………………………. Used in………………………………..

The amount of energy release form a fat depends on what?

Which key organ cannot use fatty acids for energy?

When are ketone bodies produced?

Where are ketone bodies made?

Ketone bodies are made from acetyl CoA. This can come from 2 different dietary sources. What are these sources?

Give the names of the 3 ketone bodies

Explain the following terms

Ketogenesis …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Ketosis

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Ketoacidosis

How would you identify a person with ketoacidosis?

Energy from protein

The carbon skeletons of all amino acids are broken down into metabolites that can enter the ……………… …………………. From here they can either be completely ………………….. into CO2 , or diverted into …………………………. or ……………………..

What has to happen to all amino acids before they can be used for energy production?

Name 2 important vitamin cofactors for the degradation of amino acids

What waste product is produced during amino acid degradation and where does it end up?

Waste product………………………………………

End up …………………………….. or ………………………………

Gluconeogenesis

Explain the term gluconeogenesis

Suggest 3 molecules that could be used for gluconeogenesis

Where does gluconeogenesis occur?

When does gluconeogenesis occur?

What is needed for gluconeogenesis to take place?

Which other pathway is gluconeogenesis very similar to?

Name a nutrient needed for gluconeogenesis

Energy from food

What are the four major energy sources for the body

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CNM Nutritional Biochemistry Worksheet

Which are the only 2 energy sources that can be used by the brain?

THE END!

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