PO 334
Political Economy of Japan
Dr. Lairson
First Lecture
A, Yayoi era: 300 BC - 300 AD: stable agricultural society;
What is China like at this time?
B. 200-700 waves of Chinese and Koreans come to Japan
600: first documented emperor
694: first Chinese-style capital is established
Foundation myths - Kojiki and Nihon Shoki
Primitive religion - Shinto (the Way of the Gods or kami ) rests on these texts
C. Broad periods in Japanese history
Japan has had but one dynasty; compare to China; What are the consequences? Emperor as symbol without substantial power
1. Nara era: 710-784 - consolidate bureaucratic government; create communication and transportation system; emergence of Buddhism as force in society.
The main source of these changes came from outside Japan: the emergence of an interstate system based on Chinese hegemony and including Korea.
A central capital was needed to concentrate decisions and forces in order to establish protection. The need to move beyond a mere association of clans was reflected in a more centralized and bureaucratic state.
Shotoku and the creation of basic Chinese-style institutions:
Ranks: highest office reserved for top ranks
Nihon Shoki
Seventeen Injunctions as a Chinese-style ideology of behavior
students to China
Later, information on the society (population, land surveys) and standards of measure (rice tax, Chinese calendar were introduced
Administrative codes were adopted and a bureaucracy created to administer it.
Strengths and weaknesses of the Japanese state:
Emperor ruled by divine descent; not subject to the mandate of heaven
But clan leaders retained significant autonomy; constantly needed to be bought off by the emperor
Wooden buildings for the capital resulted in impermanence
2. Heian Period: 784-1185
Kyoto as capital (originally Heian)
absorb more Chinese culture
family factions and Buddhists compete for power
dominance of the Fujiwara family through wealth, bureaucratic position, marriage to the emperor, role as regent, use of abdication by emperor
world of a wealthy and leisured elite with little to do
Buddhism and Japan
Entry from China, via Korea and adoption was related to the political needs of the emperor
Symbiosis of Shinto and Buddhism
The emergence of private landed estates (shoen)
The growing wealth of the great estates
Ability to avoid tax by such powerful forces
Emperor solves income problem by becoming an estate owner
Central government os weakened by tax shortfall
Emergence of a warrior class
Samurai
Warrior code of courage, loyalty to lords, semi-vassalage (bushido)
Growth of wealth and rivalry between clans spurs need for samurai
Compare the samurai to the knights of feudal Europe:
Why were there more samurai? How were they equiped to fight? Why were they poorer?
3. Kamakura Period: 1185-1333
Begins with clan rivalry and warfare: victory of the Minamoto over the Taira
Achievement of political power based on military strength
Minamoto win because they realize the power of land grants to those who back them
Military victory solidifies the samurai values of the warrior code and loyalty
Beginnings of Shogunate:
Political power previously rested on controlling the emperor
Shift is to a focus on building and sustaining regional power
Bakufu/Samurai political order: administer the land and vassal system
establish a legal system
growth of cities and markets;
growing strength of local powers
Greatest achievement of the Kamakura era was the defeat of the Mongols over the period from 1274-1294
required the creation and preservation of a large standing army
afterwards fighting broke out over who was to receive land allotments
an emperor succession struggle led to the defeat of the Kamakura in 1333
4. Muromachi/Warring States period: 1336-1590
Three years of intrigue and conflict lead to deposing the emperor and establishing the strongest military figure as shogan in 1336
civil war continues between emperor and heirs and Ashikaga shogans
constant warfare increases the power and wealth of local warlords: shugo-daimyo
warrior government separate from Emperor; frequent breakdown of central authority
5. Tokugawa Era: 1603 - 1868
6. Terms
shogun,
samurai,
daimyo,
Oda Nobunaga
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Tokugawa Ieyasu
fudai daimyo
tozama (outside) daimyo
alternate attendance (sankin kotai)
Tokugawa Era
I. Modern Japan 2: State Building by the Tokugawa
A. Reunification
Full fledged feudalism born in the civil war of late fifteen century. Further fragmentation of authority. Rise of regional warrior chieftains as daimyo (several hundreds) supported by vassals. More powerful daimyos cherished ambition to reunify the country (centralizing force began to work). Reunification was achived by three generals building upon each other's work. Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Tokugawa from 1560 to 1600. Nobunaga, a son of a small daimyo, use of firearms as new style of fighting and strategy. Hideyoshi, son of a foot soldier. Unified Japan. Tokugawa Ieyasu, won a decisive battle in 1600.
B. Consolidation
State building completed by the late 17th C. More centralized than the two shogunate before. Rules, regulations, laws and institutions horizontally over other elite (imperial house, court nobility and sects of Buddhism) and vertically over society (bureaucracy, central and local).
Study Questions
How did Ieyasu and his successors secure the realm? What were the rules, regulations, practices and institutions they had designed for political control horizontally and vertically? Why did the Tokugawa rulers close Japan and persecute the Christians?
II. Prelude to Unification: 1530-1600
A. 1543: arrival of Portuguese - firearms and missionaries
B. Period of political breakdown; weak/nonexistent shoguns; opportunities for new warriors to unify the country if one can gain military dominance
C. Oda Nobunaga - 1534-1582
Toyotomi Hideyoshi - 1537 - 1598
Tokugawa Ieyasu - 1542 - 1616
D. Nobunaga -
one of the first to realize the value of Western firearms;
military victories give control of central and then southern Japan between 1560 -1582;
Attacks the power of Buddhism
usurps power of shogun;
assassinated 1582
E. Hideyoshi -
Originally a vassal of Nobunaga
Steps quickly into Nobunaga's position with victories over rivals;
Completes efforts of Nobunaga to unify Japan with military triumphs and alliances;
Most important alliance was with Ieyesu
Establishes controls over weaker local lords
attacks missionaries out of fear of Portuguese and Spanish power;
1588 "Sword Hunt" takes all arms away from peasants and separate samurai from land;
This increases the dependence of samurai on their lord
dies in failed effort to carry victories to Korea
F. Tokugawa -
death of Hideyoshi leads to a succession struggle
battle of Seikigahara in 1600 produces Tokugawa victory;
takes title of shogun;
Drastic redistribution of land:
Local lords (daimyo) are placed in ranks by their closeness to Tokugawa
eventually control directly and indirectly about 2/3 of land
establishes a national government
III. Tokugawa era
A. Was this just a feudal system? How is it distinct from feudalism of 1450 in the west?
What makes the Japan of 1750 not modern? What features of 1750 Japan make it more like a modern state?
isolation
more central authority
large local powers - daimyo
samurai did not have land
Shogunate was a large bureaucratic system. Tokugawa order was more complex politically than western feudalism.
B. How did the Tokugawa system work?
Tokugawa family and allies controlled 60-65%% of land
Tokugawa directly controlled 25% of the land
Bakufu took over from Tokugawa family after 1650
Roju - main ministers - and Bakufu were the real centers of power
Bakuhan – system of governance
Daimyo: fudai (allies of Tokugawa) and Tozama (outsiders)
Daimyo have complete control within their domain
outside domain daimyo are controlled by shogun, who can transfer daimyo and/or confiscate land
daimyo are required to provide public works
sankin-kotai – what is this?; how did it work? What was the political purpose and effect?
Absence of a national political loyalty; loyalty was local, within domains
Samurai:
separated from land, receive a stipend
permanent military force
become a civil official of their daimyo
lived in towns and governed villages in name of daimyo
high status
end of wars forces many samurai into a bureaucratic role
legacy of bushido in an era or a bureaucratic role
declining economic position as prices rise and stipends are fixed
Castle towns were concentrations of daimyo, samurai, merchants and artisans
Emperor
Feudal bureaucratic state – most modern part of Japanese political order
Creates bureaucratic rule; which preserves but almost never innovates
Samurai were backward looking
Vacuum of political leadership in any modern sense
C. Economic change:
economic growth comes from a rise in land under cultivation
sankin-kotai helped create a national economy;
wealth concentration in Edo;
Edo grows from a small fishing village in 1590 to the largest city in the world in 1700;
distribution system to and from Edo;
more production for market; increase in urbanization - large cities;
some shift away from feudalism
Barriers to capitalism: small and fragmented domestic market; political fragmentation; labor tied to land; technological backwardness
Tokugawa finance:
· collect in rice, pay in money;
· constant deficit spending;
· borrowing from merchants - refuse to pay back
· Samurai impoverishment;
· high taxes lead to periodic political instability in 1800-1850;
· but Tokugawa system remains powerful against any domestic opponents
D. Ideas: Buddhism; Shinto; Confucianism; ethnocentrism; Bushido (way of the warrior)
II. Generalizations about the nature of political power and political order
A. Power and political stability depend always on military dominance
B. Dominance is always one of the best organized minority that establishes control over the rest
C. The great political task of this minority is to convince the ruled that their interests coincide with this minority
D. How to do this? dispense benefits to supporters; ideology - religion; beliefs about society (bushido); manipulate bases of power of various groups; provide public goods - security, rule of law, prosperity
Characteristics of late Tokugawa Japan
Physical isolation; cultural isolation
Reality and myth of homogeneity
The ideological justification of rankings and privileges in society:
Samurai and “job creators”
Economic basis of collectivist ethic and role of the household
Religion
Buddhism
Shinto
Confucianism
Samurai
Economic Change in Tokugawa Japan
Despite the absence of significant trade and interaction with the outside world,
Tokugawa Japan achieved economic growth and became a relatively rich nation in the 1850s. Japan had become a high consumption society.
Population growth
1600 1700 1800
12 million 28 million 31 million
Rice production
1600 1700 1800
20 mil. Koku 31 mil. Koku 38 mil. koku
1800 about 10% urbanization
Edo population of 1 million
Peasant cultivation – small scale; low capital; low animal; labor intensive
Proto industrialization
Handicraft production – very labor intensive
Little technological change
Merchants, bankers and markets
End tariff barriers of domains
Build highways
National markets for rice, cotton and salt
Lending to daimyo on basis of future tax revenues
Domain governments become entrepreneurs
Samurai become an economic drag on society