This is for AS level English Language notes and this is followed from the specification and revision from college. There are also summary sections released separately.

What is the difference between question 1 and 2?

Key words

Key word / Definition
Morpheme / Unit of meaning.
Substitution / Replacing lexical items.
Lexical fields / Cohesive patterns of lexis; they are formed by a relation in subject. E.g. ’hot’ and ‘temperature’ are parts of the lexical field of weather.
Synonyms / These are similar in meaning, for example ‘warm’ and ‘boiling hot’ are both similar meaning an increase in temperature. However, they don’t portray the same effect.
Polysemes / Lexis that has more than one meaning, e.g. ‘hide’. These both means the sheep skin and are a section of the children’s game: hide and seek.
Modality / The medium of communication whether it is written or spoken.
Genre

Frameworks

The four purposes are to inform, to instruct, and to persuade. Many kinds of writing and speech do not fit into this simple categorisation.

There are many ways to classify language use; one is to define whether the text is written or spoken (mode). Some kinds of language, however, embody characteristic of both like chat rooms or texting. You can’t even assume that texts are either formal or informal as there is a whole spectrum of formality including taboo at one end. There is also slang which is not regarded as ‘proper’ English. This is suggested as the register of the text.

This may refer to the lexis which relate to a specific topic, area or subject. There are different language varieties across the country and we distinguish between the pronunciations that are part of regional speech by calling it an accent.

It is also possible to consider texts as examples of distinctive kinds of language use which have recognisable features or conventions (genre) and it is important to bear in mind the readers or listeners for whom the text is produced-audience.

We need to categorise language precisely with the help of frameworks. We can consider how a text is organised and constructed: how it begins and ends, and what happens in the middle-discourse. For written language, there is the physical presentation of the text on the page, or graphology. The study of grammar, the way that sentences are constructed and how words are organised is covered by syntax.

‘I write’ and ‘she writes’ are examples of first or third person. We can classify sentence depending on their function, some sentences ask questions (interrogatives), and others give commands (imperatives), other simply present statements (declarative), while some outbursts or comments (exclamatives). Some sentences are not really sentences by the definition as they may consist of one or two words-minor sentences.

We classify parts of speech into word classes, words like pen, grass, disagreement and David Beckham are all nouns. We can subdivide this class; pen and grass are objects of the real world, so they are known as concrete nouns. David Beckham is the name given to a well-known person, so it is a proper noun. Whereas, disagreement is an idea or feeling-in other words an abstract noun. Then they are ‘describing words’ known as adjectives. Traditionally, the definition of a ‘verb’ is a ‘doing’ word. However, this is misleading; the most common one is ‘is’ or ‘be’, followed by ‘have’ and many of these describe states or feelings rather than actions. Extra information about these words is known as an adverb, which will tell us something about how, where or when this is going on. There are other word classes, such as I, you, he and she known as pronouns. Words such as with, and, but because and so are connectives Also words like on, under, behind and after are types of prepositions.

Breaking language down even further can lead us to think about the sounds of English-the study of phonology. English is made of 44 basic vowel and consonant sounds called phonemes. However, when we talk we usually don’t depend on these, as our gestures, eye contact and body language (paralinguistic features) and our intonation, speed of speaking and the way we stress words (prosodic features). This is why speech seems to be less meaningful if you are not present, in other words it is context-bound.

We can also look at how words convey meanings. The study of this aspect of language is called semantics. The meanings of words are complex; two words in a similar lexical field may appear to have similar meanings or be synonyms. The chances are that they have different meanings or ideas associated –in other words they have different connotations. There is a difference between language in what we say literally, and language that works like a metaphor, in other words figurative language. We sometimes don’t say what we mean; we might sometimes say we are going to powder our nose when in fact we intend something different, this is known as a euphemism. At other times, we might create humour by being more blunt than being polite, which is a dysphemism. In many texts, the meaning may not be immediately obvious and have a hidden meaning or intention, known as pragmatics.

Lexis AND SEMANTICS

(What sorts of words are used?)

Lexis can be broken down into morphemes-these are the unit of meaning. There are four different types of morphemes: free, dependent, creative and grammatical.

Free/independentthese morphemes can stand on their own.

Dependent/boundthese can be attached to other morphemes.

Grammaticalthese give grammatical information-e.g. plurals.

Creativethese form new words.

Examiner’s tip

It is important to note that all words are dependent on context for their full meaning to be understood.

Introduction to lexis

Lexis can be broken down into morphemes-these are the unit of meaning.

There are four different types of morphemes: free, dependent, bound and grammatical.

Free/independentthese morphemes can stand on their own.

Dependent/boundthese can be attached to other morphemes.

Grammaticalthese give grammatical information-e.g. plurals

Creativethese form new words

Techniques to look out for: lexis and semantics
  • Substitution-replacing lexical items for a certain effect
  • Lexical fields –these are cohesive patterns that are formed by clusters of words by meanings
  • The linking of meanings: synonyms (linked in meaning), polysemes (lexis that have more than one meaning) and homophones (the same pronunciation but different meanings).
  • Referencing-anaphoric/cataphoric

Cataphoricthis is where you reference first using a pronoun and then reference to the actual pronoun later in the text.

Anaphoricthis is where you reference back to something with the use of a pronoun. E.g. ‘he’

When analysing a text, you should ask the following questions:

  1. Does it convey fact and opinions?

Is it emotional?

Look out for specific word classes: adverbs, adjectives, verbs and nouns.

  1. Is it formal/informal/neutral?

Does it link to a certain theme?

  1. Is it personal/impersonal?

Look at the use of pronouns- who does it refer to?

  1. Are there any non-standard/regional expressions?
  2. Is the text used in a literal/figurative sense?
Registers

REGISTER is how formal you are.

MODE-medium of communication, whether it is written or spoken.

TENOR-this is the relationship between the producer and receiver, this is shown by the use of pronouns, questions and formality.

FIELD—this is the general purpose of communication, e.g. to inform, to entertain, to persuade etc.

Discourse

(How is it organised?)

Discourse structure

This explains how texts are put in together.

Discourse structure / Key features / Examples
List/instructions / Logical progression through stages, use of imperative verbs to instruct, guide. / Recipes, instructions and guides.
Problem-solution / Identifies a problem. / Product advertisements.
Analysis / Breaks down key ideas.
Evaluates and explores. / Articles and newspaper editorials.
Narrative / Series of events and this can be chronological or non-chronological. / Novels and witness accounts.

Discourse analysis

Discourse framework looks at how texts present information in order to create identities for particular individuals or institutions and the ideologies that are often included.

  • One speaker is narrative.
  • Multi speakers are conversational.
Analysing oral narratives: Labov’s narrative categories (AO2-THEORISTS)

When a speaker talks for a long period, it is known as narrating. Labov put forward a six part structure for oral narrative accounts of narrative events.

  • Abstract (A), the indication that a narrative is about to start and the speaker wants a listener’s attention.
  • Orientation (O), the who, what, where and why of the narrative. This sets the scene and provides further contextual information to the listener.
  • Complicating action (CA), the main body providing a range of detail.
  • Resolution (R), the final events in order to give the narrative closure.
  • Evaluation (EV), additions to the basic story, to highlight attitudes or to command and the listener’s attention at important moments.
  • Coda (C), a sign that the narration is complete. This might include a return to the initial time frame before the narrative.
The analysis of conversations

This usually occurs with an exchange structure between multi speakers.

Adjacency pairs are common in conversations; an example of this is during turn taking with question and answers. They can become more complex with a triadic structure: initiationresponsefeedback.

Taking turns and control

Taking turns are crucial in conversation. Topic managements usually occurs with powerful participants (language and power-language in social contexts).

Common features of spoken discourse
Discourse feature / Description / Examples
Back-channelling / This shows speaker support, non-verbal utterances to show agreement and attention. / Mmm, yeah, OK
Discourse marker / It signals a shift in conversation and topic areas. It can also be used as a counter-argument. / OK, right then, so, but
Fillers / Non-verbal sounds that act like pauses in speech, they are quite natural and they may signal uncertainty. / Err, um
Hedging / Avoids directness or to minimise a potential face-threatening situation. / Kind of, sort of, maybe, perhaps and modal verbs.
False starts/repairs / False starts are when a speaker starts to talk, pauses and then recommences.
A repair returns to correct a previously stated phrase or sentence. / It began err Arsenal kicked off the second half.
Skip connectors / A return to a previous topic of conversation. / Anyway, coming back to our original conversation.
Fixed expressions / A conventional and routine expression in colloquial communication, sometimes metaphorical. / As a matter of fact.
Vague expressions / Similar to hedging, deliberate non-committal expressions. / Anything, something
Ellipsis / Omission of a word for economical purposes, informal contexts and to avoid awkward situations. / (I’ve)…just seen Jack.
Tag questions / This consists of an auxiliary verb, pronoun and a negative participle. / It was tomorrow, wasn’t it?
Deixis / Pointing words in a perceptual, temporal or spatial dimension. / I, now, here and there,
Non-fluency features / Non-verbal occurrences. / Pauses, hesitations and repetitions.

Graphology

Key terms

Typography: font type, size, colour, emboldening, italicising, underlining and any other modifications to font types.

Cultural Model: An organisational structure based on shared and agreed criteria by groups of people within a society.

Shape of the text - reader uses knowledge to help identify the purpose and meaning of a text.

Images - Iconic or symbolic. Add a meaning?

Iconic Signs - Direct picture of the thing it represents. Provides a basic reference for the reader. Tend to be simple and straightforward.

Symbolic Signs - Draw on association or connotation. Usually defined by cultural convention, based on existing cultural models. Provide meaning because society has placed certain values or qualities on them.

Photographs and artwork - Provide associative meaning and work in the same way as logos to produce meanings for a reader.

Space - amount of detailing. Cluttered?

Empty Spaces - as meaningful as filled ones. An attention-seeking device.

Phonology

Phonetics and phonology are the frameworks that look at the sound of English. Phonology deals with the study of the sound system, whereas phonetics deals with the actual sounds of speech. This can be said that this framework is a way of exploring sound patterns and their effects on speech.

They can be broke up into phonemes (like morphemes) are basic units but in this case they are units of sound.

Phonological patterns

Sound symbolism is the term used to describe how sounds are used to represent actual events and to mirror the actions they describe. Onomatopoeia also covers the feature of sound patterning. It can occur in lexical forms (lexical onomatopoeia-crash, bang) and non-lexical forms (non-lexical onomatopoeia, cluster of sounds such as grr).

Other patterns can be achieved by foregrounding sounds; this is often used by the techniques alliteration (sequence of words beginning with the same sound), assonance (repetition of vowel), sibilance (repetition of the letter s) and consonance (repetition of consonant sounds).

Humour

Language can be manipulated for a comical effect and this can rely on homophones (word that sounds the same as another word/s. This can also rely on phonetic substitution and may be used for a specific implied reader.

  • Regional accents, this is the pronunciation difference between Received Pronunciation (RP) and other

accents.

  • Social accents: this depends on gender, occupation and class.
  • Personal accents: these depend on mood and physical features.

Pragmatics

This depends on the context of the situation and the lexis; these can change the meaning.

Look for:

Level of formality: depending on the lexis used is some of it colloquial or Latin based?

Ambiguity: could there be any confusion about the meaning?

Language change: how language has changed over the years? E.g. dishy/fit

Connotation: are there any feelings or associations related to the lexis

Idiomatic language: refers to many words or phrases that are a familiar and everyday feature of our language; e.g. puns

Field of reference: is there lexis from a similar area?

Grammar and syntax

This framework is definitely the one that most students find difficult to apply to a text, you do need to understand the concepts because you need to be able to spot them (AO1) and not only that explain them, why are they needed. This is also important in question 2 because it is more concise.

An example of this:

  • Verb(1)
  • Modal auxiliary. (2)
  • Modal auxiliary verb.(3)

Word classes

Word class / Description/function / Examples
Noun / Names of objects, feelings, attitudes, people or places. / Table, love, anger, Steve or London.
Verb / Shows actions, events or states of being, feeling or thinking. / Jumping, to be, love or believe.
Adjective / Add detail to nouns / The BLUE car.
Adverb / Add details to verbs or adverbs. / The car drove SLOWLY.
Determiner / Positioned in front of nouns to add detail or to clarify. / THE car, A pig or AN apple.
Conjunction / Links words, phrases and clauses together. / The dog AND the cat, that’s okay BUT, it’s me OR the dog, ALTHOUGH it is a problem, BECAUSE of this misfortunate event
Pronoun / Replaces nouns and can be used in cataphoric/anaphoric referencing. / I, me, you, his, our
Nouns
Background to nouns

Every noun is a person, a place or a concrete thing, or intangible thing. A noun can fall into certain categories:

  1. A common noun that refers generically to people, place or things and so they are all written in lowercase typeface.
  2. Nouns can be classified into proper and common: count (concrete (can be touched)/ abstract (unobservable notions) and noun count (concrete/ abstract). Rediscover grammar by David Crystal
  3. A proper noun is much more specific, referring to one and only person, place or thing and written with an initial capital letter; in some case brands have internal capitals.
  4. In compound nouns, they double up to express a whole that has more meaning that its parts. They are sometimes split using a hyphen and are usually pronounced with the stress on the first syllable.

E.g. award winner, film star

  1. They are also single word compounds which now people no longer think these as compounds but one word.

E.g. raincoat

5. Nouns can also be formed with an adjective (e.g. greenhouse); if they are rearranged then they can sometimes have a completely different meaning.

6. Nouns which are formed with a gerund (something which is used for doing something), e.g. frying pan.

Many nouns are used after the determiner (a, the, this) to form a noun phrase.

Example of a noun phrase

The (determiner) pretty (pre modifier) cottage (head noun) by the sea (post modifier/qualifier). This is the constituent structure, all parts round the head noun.

Nouns are distinguished from verbs by the stress on the first syllable, this shows this is a noun but if it is stressed on the second syllable then it is a verb.

Hyphens: these are used when it is a verb and particle combinations, when a compound is accepted as a single word, the use of hyphens are usually avoided.

Noun / Examples
Proper
(Refer to names of people or places). / Frank, London.
Abstract
(Refer to states, feelings and concepts that have no physical existence). / Hate, sadness.
Concrete
(Refers to objects that have a physical existence). / Can be countable, e.g. table or not countable, e.g. furniture.
Verbs
Background on verbs

Rediscover grammar by David Crystal:Auxiliary verbs are known as helping verbs and there are two types: primary (have, be, do) and modal (must, should, could) verbs.

Verb process / Examples
Material
(Describes actions or processes). / Skip, move, and write.
Relational
(Describe states of being or are used to identify). / Is, become, disappear.
Mental
(Describes perception, thought or speech). / Speculate, believe, love.
Dynamic verb processes
(Change in state over time). / Devour, clean, remove.
Stative
(This is where the situation remains constant). / Love, believe, hold.
Adjectives and adverbs
Background on adjectives and adverbs

Rediscover grammar by David Crystal:Adjectives can be used as a complement, before the noun, verb less clauses and exclamations.