Paul Missa
School of Built Environment
College of Science and Technology
University of Salford, Manchester, UK
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, July 2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xii
AKNOWLEDGEMENT xiv
DEDICATION xv
DECLARATION xvi
ABSTRACT xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background to the Research 1
1.2 Problem Statement 5
1.3 Aim and Objectives 6
1.4 Research Questions 7
1.5 Methodological Steps 7
1.6 Contents of the Thesis 8
1.7 Chapter Summary 12
CHAPTER 2 MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCES IN CONSTRUCTION 13
2.1 Introduction ….13
2.2 HRM in Construction: Basic Characteristics 13
2.3 Micro Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs) in Construction ….15
2.4 Employment in HR Functions 17
2.4.1 Recruitment and Selection 18
a. The Recruitment Process of HRM 18
b. The Selection Process of HRM 19
c. Human Resource Training and Development 20
2.4.2 Employee Engagement… 21
a. Drivers of Engagement 23
b. BME Engagement: Employee Relations with the Organisation 24
c. HRM Function in the Construction Industry 27
2.5 People Management in Construction 29
2.6 Global Distribution of Construction Output and Employment 31
2.6.1 Construction Professions in the UK 32
2.6.2 Skilled Labour Shortfall in Construction 33
2.6.3 Benefits of Diversity 36
2.7 Factors Affection the Representation of BMEs 38
2.7.1 Culture 38
2.7.2 Societal and National Culture 39
2.7.3 Occupational Culture 41
2.7.4 Organisational Culture 43
a. UK Construction Industry Organisational Culture 46
2.7.5 The Impact of Language on Representation 47
2.7.6 The Impact of Religion on Representation 48
2.8 Key Findings from the Review of Literature 50
2.9 Chapter Summary and Conclusion 51
CHAPTER 3 WORKFORCE DIVERSITY AND E.O. CONSTRUCTION 53
3.1 Introduction ….53
3.2 Ethnicity and Ethnic Origin 53
3.2.1 BME Definition 53
3.2.2 The Make-up of Ethnicity in the UK 55
3.2.3 Population of the United Kingdom by Ethnic Group 56
3.2.4 Classification of BMEs in the UK 59
3.3 Discriminaition 63
3.3.1 The Origins of Prejudice and Discrimination 64
3.3.2 Direct and Indirect Discrimination 65
3.3.3 Harassment in Employment 66
3.3.4 Tokenism at Work 67
3.3.5 The Economic and Social Cost of Discrimination 67
3.4 Diversity and Equal Opportunity Policy (EOP) 69
3.4.1 Workforce Diversity and Equal Opportunity in Construction 71
3.4.2 The Legal Framework for Diverstiy and Equal Opportunity 73
3.4.3 Equal Opportunities Commissions 74
3.4.4 Positive Action 75
3.5 Justification for Diversity and Equal Opportunity in Construction 76
3.6 Barriers to Diversity and Equal Opportunity Policy (EOP) 78
3.7 Construction Industry's Culture and Practices 79
3.7.1 Recruitment and Selection in Construction 82
a. Recruitment Procedures and Practices 82
b. Procurement 84
3.7.2 Experiences in the Workplace 84
3.7.3 BME Exclusion in UK Construction 86
3.8 Current Issues Resulting from Economic Downturn on Employmet 87
3.9 Key Findings from Literature Review 90
3.10 Initial Conceptual Framework 92
3.11 Chapter Summary and Conclusion 94
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 95
4.1 Introduction ….95
4.2 Research Design 95
4.3 Research Research Paradigm 98
4.4 Philosophical Assumptions and Beliefs Underpinning Research Practice ….101
4.5 Research Approach 103
4.6 Research Strategy 105
4.7 Alternative Research Strategies 106
4.8 Research Choice ….108
4.9 Time Horizons 109
4.10 Research Techniques ….109
4.11 Triangulation 112
4.12 The Methodological Process 113
4.13 Validity and Reliability ….117
4.14 Codes and Policies for Research Ethics 118
4.15 Chapter Summary and Conclusion 119
CHAPTER 5: QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 121
5.1 Introduction ….….121
5.2 Qualitative Data - Interviews 121
5.2.1 The Sample Set 121
5.2.2 Pretest and Pilot Interviews 122
5.2.3 Main Interviews 122
5.2.4 Profile of Interviewees 123
5.3 The Use of Nvivo 8/9 in the Process of Analysis ….125
5.4 Main Interview Findings based on Categorisation of Themes 130
5.4.1 BMEs Underrepresentation in Construction 131
5.4.2 Employment Barriers 135
a.The Recruitment Process and Qualities of the Potential Employee 136
b. Societal Discrimination 137
c. Institutional Discrimination 138
d. Perception of Discrimination 140
e. Effects of Migrants Labour 142
f. Employer and General Perception on Recruitment 142
g.Employer - BME Experiences Effects on Representation 145
h. Lack of Networks in the Industry 147
i. Lack of Skills and Qualifications 149
j. Attraction to Specific Industries 150
5.4.3 Drivers for BME Representation 151
a. Legislation and Employer Decision and Convenience 152
b. Benefits of Diversity 154
c. Employer - BME Experiences and Effect on Inclusion 156
d. Opportunity for Further Training 158
e. Positive Discrimination: Views and Justification 159
f. The Role and Significance of BME Labour 161
g.The Effects of Ageing of the Stereotypical White Young Male 162
h.Skills and Qualifications 162
i. Self Employnent and BME Representation 164
5.5 Chapter Summary and Key Findings 166
CHAPTER 6: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 172
6.1 Introduction ….172
6.2 Data Collection Tools - Questionnaires 172
6.2.1 Outline of the Questionnaires 174
6.3 Reliability Test ….175
6.3.1 Internal Consistency Reliability Test 176
6.4 Questionnaires Analyses 178
6.4.1 Respondents Profiles 178
a. Gender 179
b. Respndents' Age Distribution 179
c. Ethnicity 181
d. Respondents' Religion 184
e. Ethnicity and Religion 184
f. Migrant Descent and Generation of Respondents 186
g.Level of Education 187
h. Language of Respondents 188
i. Summary of Respondents' Profiles 190
6.5 The Impact of Perception on the Industry's Employment ….191
6.5.1 Recruitment into Construction 191
6.5.2 Mode of Recuitment 195
6.5.3 Prior Exposure to Construction and Inclusion 197
6.5.4 Perception of BME Representation in Construction 199
6.5.5 Effects of Mode of Recruitment on Inclusion, Retention and Progression 201
6.5.6 Age into Construction's Influence on BME Representation 204
6.5.7 The Impact of Generation on Perception of BME Underrepresentation 206
6.6 Factors of BME Representation in Construction 208
6.6.1 Drivers Motivating Entry into the Industry 208
6.6.2 Barriers to BME Representation 209
6.6.3 BME Engagement 212
6.7 Sample Distribution and Significance 213
6.7.1 Choice of Tests 214
6.7.2 The Impact of Region on Respondents Attraction to Construction 215
6.7.3 Interest in Construction Employment 218
6.7.4 Respondents' Views on the Cause of BME Underrepresentation 220
6.7.5 The Effects of BME Employment on the Construction Industry 223
6.8 Spearman's RHO Correlation 224
6.8.1 Respondents' Profiles and Employment Processes 224
6.8.2 Conditions of Employment and Perception of Equal Opportunity 226
6.8.3 Barriers to Employment and Perception of Underrepresentation 226
6.8.4 Reasons for Underrepresentation and Views of Equal Opportunity 227
6.8.5 Signals of Representation and Level of Engagement 228
6.9 Chapter Summary and Key Findings 229
6.10 Conclusion 231
CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 233
7.1 Introduction 233
7.2 Discussion 233
7.2.1 Drivers for BMEs Representation in Construction 235
7.2.2 Barriers to BMEs Represetntation in Construction 237
7.3 Revised Conceptual Framework 243
7.4 Objective-Based Evaluation of the Research 245
7.5 Contribution of the Research 248
7.5.1 Contribution of the Research to Theory 248
7.5.2 Contribution of the Research to Practice 250
7.5.3 Contribution of the Research to Context 251
7.6 Conclusions 253
7.7 Limitations of the Study 234
7.8 Suggetions for Further Research 255
7.8.1 Framework Validation 255
7.8.2 Similar Studies Comparing Practices in Different Countries 255
7.8.3 Comparison of the Performance between Different BME Groups 255
7.8.4 Comparison with Other Minority Groups 255
7.8.5 Case Study Research 256
REFERENCES 257
APPENDICES 301
Appendix A - Respondents' Consent Form 301
Appendix B - Semi-Structured Interview Questions 302
Appendix C - Employee Questionnaires 305
Appendix D - Ethical Approval 314
Appendix E - List of Publications 215
List of TABLES
Table 2.1- European Commission Criteria For SMEs 17
Table 2.2 - Construction Professionals in the UK Economy 33
Table 2.3 - Labour Demand Between 2003 - 2007 34
Table 3.1 - Population of the UK by Ethnic Groups 57
Table 3.2 - Ethnic Groups in The LFS Household Datasets 2004-2008 60
Table 3.3 - Age Distribution across The Ethnic Groups 61
Table 3.4 - Family Type and Average Family Size By Ethnic Groups 62
Table 3.5 - Ageing profile of all ethnic groups in England and Wales 63
Table 3.6 - The Difference Between Diversity and Equal Opportunity 73
Table 4.1 - Research Design Framework 96
Table 4.2 - Data Sources for Achieving Research Objectives 116
Table 4.3 - Breakdown of Interview Questions on General Content and Themes 117
Table 5.1 - Profile of Interviewees 124
Table 5.2 - Barriers to BME Representation in Construction Extracted from Nvivo 8 135
Table 5.3 - Drivers to BME Representation in Construction Extracted from Nvivo 8 152
Table 6.1 - Regional Distribution of the Questionnaires 173
Table 6.2 - Reliability Statistics 177
Table 6.3 - General Profile of Respondents 179
Table 6.4 - Distribution of Respondents by Gender 179
Table 6.5 - Age Distribution of Respondents 180
Table 6.6 - Frequency and Percentage of Respondents Ethnicity 181
Table 6.7 - Crosstabulation of Relation in Industry and Mode of Entry 183
Table 6.8 - Respondents Region by Count and Percentage 184
Table 6.9 - Breakdown of Respondents' Migrant Descent 186
Table 6.10- Breakdown of Respondents' Generation 186
Table 6.11- Ethnicity and Construction Related Qualifications 188
Table 6.12- Langanges Spoken at Work 189
Table 6.13- Languages Spoken at Home 189
Table 6.14- Respondents' Employment Status 192
Table 6.15- Age into Construction 194
Table 6.16- Experience outside of Construction 197
Table 6.17- Mode of Entry and Ever Worked outside Construction 199
Table 6.18a- BME Inclusion 200
Table 6.18b -Perception of BMEs on Retention 200
Table 6.18c -Perception of BMEs on Progression 201
Table 6.19 - Mode of Entry and Perception of BMEs' Inclusion, Retention and Progression 202
Table 6.20 - Factors Influencing Employment 208
Table 6.21 - Discriptives Statistics of Factors Contributing to BME Underrepresentation 210
Table 6.22 - Factors Influenceing BME Engagement 213
Table 6.23 - Choice of Inferential Statistical Tests 215
Table 6.24 - Chi Square Analyses of Factors Responsible for Industry Attraction by Region 215
Table 6.25 - Mann Whitney U Test of Dstribution for Categories Across Regions 216
Table 6.26 - Kruskal Wallis Test for Factors for Attraction based on Religion 219
Table 6.27 - Kruskal Wallis Test for Factors Responsible for Attraction based on Ethnicity 220
Table 6.28 - Kruskal Wallis Test for Views Responsible for Attraction based on Religion 220
Table 6.29 - Kruskal Wallis Test for View Responsible for Attraction base on Location 221
Table 6.30 - Kruskal Wallis Test for Views Responsible for Attracion based on Ethnicity 222
Table 6.31 - Significance of Employment Barriers Dependence on Respondents Profiles 223
Table 6.32 - Respondents' Profile and Employment Process 225
Table 6.33 - Employment and Perception of Equal Opportunity 226
Table 6.34 - Barriers to Employment and Perception of Underrepresentation 227
Table 6.35 - Reasons for Underrepresentation and Equal Opportunity Views 228
Table 6.36 - Factors of Representation and Level of Engagement 229
List of figures
Figure 1.1 - Research Design And Strutcture Of The Thesis 11
Figure 2.1 - The Flexible Firm Model 14
Figure 2.2 - The Engagement Model 23
Figure 2.3 - Prototypical Categories Of The Multidimensional Equity Sensitivity Construct 26
Figure 2.4 - The Personnel Function 28
Figure 2.5 - Global Distribution Of Construction Output And Employment 32
Figure 2.6 - BME Helping and Hindering Factors into Construction Employment 36
Figure 2.7 - The Acculturation Process 40
Figure 2.8 - Enculturation Process of BMES into Construction Organisations 42
Figure 3.1 - The Population of England and Wales by Ethnic Groups 58
Figure 3.2 - The Framework for the Representaion of BMEs in Construction 93
Figure 4.1 - The Research 'Onion' 97
Figure 4.2 - The Research Paradigm Continuum 98
Figure 4.3 - Philosophical Stance of the Research 102
Figure 4.4- Deductive and Inductsive Reasoning 104
Figure 4.5 - Components of the Research Process 105
Figure 4.6 - Summary of Research Position 106
Figure 4.7 - Sequential Research Approach 115
Figure 4.8 - Parallell Resarch Approach 115
Figure 5.1 -Hierarchical Structure of Tree Nodes in Nvivo 8 126
Figure 5.2 - Hierarchical Tree Structure of Nodes in Nvivo 8 in the Study 127
Figure 5.3 - References of the Most Dominant Theme 'Attraction to Specific Industries' 128
Figure 5.4 - Characterisation of Themes in Nvivo 8 129
Figure 5.5 - BME Employment Barriers and Drivers in Nvivo 9 130
Figure 5.6 – BME Employment Helping and Hindering Factors Reiewed 167
Figure 5.7 - Outcome of Interview Processes 168
Figure 6.1 - SPSS 16 Screen Shot of Reliability Test using Chrombach's Alpha 177
Figure 6.2 - Respondents Distribution 178
Figure 6.3 - Crosstabulation of Age and Ethnicity 180
Figure 6.4 - Crosstabulation of Region and Ethnicity 182
Figure 6.5 - Distribution of Employees by Ethnicity and Religion 185
Figure 6.6 - Distribution by Level of Education 187
Figure 6.7 - Languages Spoken at Work 189
Figure 6.8 - Languages Spoken at Home 189
Figure 6.9 - Graphical Representation of Ethnicities and Language at Work 190
Figure 6.10 - Employment Status of Respondents 192
Figure 6.11 - Age into Construction and Currently Working Full-Time 193
Figure 6.12 - Respondents Job Titles 194
Figure 6.13 - Age into Contruction 194
Figure 6.14 - Sources of Recruitment into Construction 195
Figure 6.15 - Average Score for Influential Factors to Join Construction 196
Figure 6.16 - Experience Outside Construction 197
Figure 6.17 - Age into Construction and Ever Worked Outside Construcition 198
Figure 6.18a -BME Employment 200
Figure 6.18b -Perception of BMEs on Retention 200
Figure 6.18c -Perception of BMEs on Progression 201
Figure 6.19a -Effects of Mode of Entry on Inclusion 202
Figure 6.19b -Effects of Mode of Entry on Retention 203
Figure 6.19c -Effects of Mode of Entry on Progression 203
Figure 6.20a -Age into Construction and Perception of BME Inclustion 204
Figure 6.20b -Age into Construction and Perception of BME Retention 205
Figure 6.20c -Age into Construction and Perception of BME Progression 205
Figure 6.21a -Generation and the Perception of BME Inclusion 206
Figure 6.21b -Generation and the Perception of BME Retention 207
Figure 6.21c -Generation and the Perception BME Progression 207