FreshmanStudents’AttitudesToward Issues of Computer Ethics
AliACILAR
TheDepartmentofBusinessAdministration BilecikUniversity,Turkey ;
MuzafferAYDEMİR
TheDepartmentofBusinessAdministration BilecikUniversity,Turkey
Abstract: Computers and Internet have become apart ofourlife. Ourdependence onthese technologies hasbeencontinuouslyandrapidlyincreasing.ComputersandInternetusealsohas become a necessity for instructional purposes in academic environments. Although the widespread useofcomputers andInternet hasmanybenefits foralmost everyone, ithasalso increasedtheuseofthesetechnologiesforillegalpurposesorunethicalactivitiessuchaspiracy andprivacyinvasion.Takingtheseissuesintoconsideration,themainpurposeof thisstudyisto explore freshman students’ attitudes toward several issuesofcomputer ethics.Thisstudywas conducted using a survey method and data were collected among freshman students in the DepartmentofBusinessAdministrationatapublicuniversityinTurkey.Hypothesesweretested forinvestigatingwhetherage,genderanddurationofcomputerusageina weekhavea significant impactonfreshmanstudents’ethicaljudgmentsregardingcomputerandInternetusage.
Keywords:Computerethics,freshmanstudents
Introduction
Computershavebecomeapartofsociety.Computersandinternetchangethewaywelive,thewaywe communicate,thewaywegeteducation,thewaywemakebusiness.Societiesarechangingwithinformationand communicationtechnologies.ManybusinessesdependoncomputersandInternetforitsoperations.Computersand Internethaveincreasinglybecomenecessityineducationandindustryaswellasindailylife.Thereisnodoubtthat thesetechnologieshavehadconsiderableimpactonourlives.However,thetradeoffbetweenthebenefitsand dangersforapersonorasocietyiscontroversial.Today’sadvancedinformationandcommunicationtechnologies haveenlightenedmanypeoplebut,alsohaveincreasedtheuseofcomputersforillegalpurposesorunethical activitiessuchaspiracy,privacyinvasion,unauthorizedaccessanduseofcomputersystems(Banerjeeetal,1998; Mason,1986;Sedlet,1999,LeeandChan,2008;MaslinMasromandZurainiIsmail,2008;Akbulutetal,2008,a).
Technologicaldevelopmentscreatenewopportunitiesforactionandnewsetsofchoicesthatareultimately
ofamoralnature(MullenandHorner,2004).Aslivingintheinformationage,alsoknowncommonlyasthe computerageorinformationera,weconstantlyconfrontedwithimportanttechnologicalchangesandtheneedto createnewattitudestowardsnewsituationsarosefromthecomputertechnology(MaslinMasromandZurainiIsmail,
2008).Technologicalchangespenetratesocietiesfasterthannewattitudesareformedforthemorlegalandethical
codesareadopted(Bercu,1991).
AstheuseofcomputersandInternethasbecomewidespread,misusesofthesetechnologieshaveincreased dramatically(Banerjeeetal,1998).Theeasyofreaching,storing,changingandtransmittinginformationprovidedby Internethasmadeunethicalbehaviorsmucheasier,particularlyamongstudentsinacademicsettings(AbdulKarim, Zamzuri,andNor,2009).Internethasprovidedanewdimensiontohumancomputerinteraction.Thereisnodoubt thatproperuseofInternetisbeneficialtoboth,studentsandacademicians.Howeverthereisnocodeofethicsfor usersintheInternet.Thereisanethicalvacuumincyberspace(Laudon,1995).AccordingtoSackson(1996)asthe generalpublicbecomesincreasingly‘computerliterate’,thegapbetweentechnologyandpeoples’intellect
noticeablyshrinks.
Studentsenteruniversitiesfromdifferentbackgroundsandwithdifferentexperiences.Manystudentsare unawareofethicalissuesofcomputerusagesuchassoftwarepiracy(CohenandCornwell,1989).Accordingto CalluzzoandCante(2004)manyifnotmost,studentshadmisconceptionsaboutwhatrepresentedethicaland unethicalbehaviorsintheuseofsoftwareandinformationtechnologyandsystems.Itisimportanttomeasurethe
levelofcomputerethicsawarenessinthefirstyearofundergraduateeducationtotakenecessarymeasuresabout ethicalcomputerusageamongstudentsbeforegraduation.
TeachingcomputerethicsisacriticaltaskintheDepartmentofBusinessAdministration.Thereareseveral reasonscomputerethicsisanimportantissueforstudentsintheDepartmentofBusinessAdministration.Itis possiblethatifcollegestudentsareuncertainaboutwhatconstitutesappropriateandinappropriatebehaviorthenthis uncertaintywillbecarriedforwardintotheirworkplacesaftergraduation(CalluzzoandCante,2004;KingandCase,
2007).Employeeabuseofcompanyinformationtechnologyresourcescanslowasystem’snetwork,hurtthe productivityofallworkerstryingtoaccessinformationonthesystemandevendangerousnetworkcanbeinfected byadownloadedvirus.Thesecasesmaygeneratehugelossesforcompanyandcanresultinlawsuitordismissal
(PerreaultandKeith,2004).Eventhoughsomeorganizationadoptedcodeofethicsformembers,noteverycomputer userandinformationsystemprofessionalisamemberoftheseorganizations,andthereforedoesnotnecessarily follow thesecodes(Harris,2000).Computerabuseiswidespreadissuearoundtheworld.Topreventfinanciallosses fromcomputerabuse,companiesneedtoemploypeoplewhoareawareofethicalcomputerusage(PierceandHenry,
1996).Sincemanycompaniesdependonpeoplewhoarecomputerliterateandcomputerusersfaceethicalproblems everydayinthework-place.Forthesereasonscollegestudentsshouldbeawareofethicalcomputerusagebefore graduation(PierceandHenry,1996;CalluzzoandCante,2004).
Giventheseissues,thisstudywasconductedamongfreshmanstudentsintheDepartmentofBusiness AdministrationatapublicuniversityinTurkeytogaininsightabouttheirawarenessandunderstandingofthe computerethicsissues.
LiteratureReview
Computerethicsawarenessamongundergraduatestudentsindifferentfieldsofstudyhasbeenthesubjectof severalstudies.Differentdimensionsofcomputerethicshavebeenaddressedbythesestudies.CohenandCornwell (1989)conductedastudyoncollegestudentstodeterminetheirattitudetowardcopyingofcomputersoftware.They determinedthat58%ofthecollegestudents,whoareparticipatedthesurvey,hadpersonallypirated.Cohenand Cornwell(1989)determinedthatanoverwhelmingmajorityofstudentsfeelthatsoftwarepiracyandotherformsof informationsystemunethicalbehaviorareacceptable,alsomanystudentsfeelthatitisokayforthemtopirate softwarebuttheyfeelthatpiracyisnormativebehavior.
Athley(1993)surveyedsixty-fivecomputerscienceandcomputerinformationsystemsstudentsto
determinetheirethicalbeliefsonsevenscenariosandnineteenethicalproblems.Shefoundsignificantdifferences betweenhigh-techstudentsandcomputerexpertsbasedonethicalbeliefsincomputer-relatedsituations.
Harris(2000)investigatedinformationsystemsethicalattitudesamongcollegestudentswithasurvey includingethicalsituationsof20individualsituations.Hefoundthatthereisadifferenceinattitudesasstudents maturethroughtheeducationalprocessin12ofthe20individualsituations,andbetweengendersin8ofthe20 individualsituations.
Siegfried(2004)investigatedstudentattitudesonsoftwarepiracyandrelatedissuesofcomputerethics.He determinedfromthestudythatstudentsgenerallyfeltthatcopyingcommercialsoftwareanddownloadingmusic fromtheInternetwasacceptableandfoundthattherewasnosignificantcorrelationbetweenstudentattitudesand theirschool’sreligiousaffiliationorlackthereof.Hefoundthatasmallbutsignificantpercentageofresponding studentsconsideredtheotherquestionablebehaviorsasethicallyacceptable.Studentsdonotseeanyproblemwith downloadingmusicovertheInternet.Siegfried(2004)determinedthatthereisnosenseamongcollegestudentsthat theunauthorizedcopyingofcommercialsoftwareiswrong.
CalluzzoandCante(2004)conductedaresearchamonggraduateandundergraduatestudentstogaininsight
intotheirattitudes,perceptionsandunderstandingof ethicsin informationtechnologyandsoftwareuse.Theyfound thatthesamplewerequiteethicalin thosebehaviorsassociatedwithpersonalprivacy,personalpropertyoroutright theft.Thisstudycouldn’tfindsignificantdifferencesamonggendersbasedonethicaljudgements.
McCarthy,Halawi,andAronson(2005)studiedtodeterminewhethertherearesignificantdifferences betweenundergraduateandgraduatestudentsintheirperceptionofinformationtechnologyethics.Thestudyfound thatsignificantdifferencesdonotexistbetweenundergraduateandgraduatecomputerinformationsystemsstudents butsignificantdifferencesexistedbetweenmaleandfemalecomputerinformationsystemsstudentsintheirethical beliefsrelatedtoinformationtechnologyusage.
GanandKoh(2006)examinedperceptionsofsoftwarepiracyandstudiedtodiscoveritsunderlyingfactors inthreeuniversitiesatSingapore.Theyfoundthatwhileagewasnegativelyrelatedtosoftwarepiracy,computer experienceorcomputerusagedemonstratedanambiguousrelationshiptosoftwarepiracy.
HalawiandKarkoulian(2006)investigatedethicalattitudesofbusinessinformationsystemsstudenttoward informationsystems.Theyfoundthatthereisadifferenceinperceptiontoethicalsituationsbetweenundergraduate andgraduatestudentsaswellasbetweenfemalesandmalesincertainethicalsituations.
KingandCase(2007)investigatedundergraduatestudentbehaviorandperceptionsaboute-cheating.They foundedthatevencheatingiscommonamongundergraduatesonlyfourpercentofstudentsadmittocheatingon examsusinginformationtechnology.
Masrom,Ismail,andHussein(2008)investigatedtheethicalawarenessofcomputeruseamong undergraduatecomputersciencestudentsattwopublicMalaysianuniversities.Theyfoundthattheethicalawareness ofcomputeruseofthestudentsdiffermostsignificantlyonthebasisoftheuniversityitself.Theyfoundnomajor differencesacrossgender,ageanddurationofcomputeruse.
NamluandOdabasi(2007)carriedoutasurveywith216undergraduatestudentsfromAnadoluUniversity, Turkeycomputerengineeringandcomputerandinstructionaltechnologiesteachingdepartmentsanddeveloped unethicalcomputerusingbehaviorscale(UECUBS).Akbulutetal(2008,b)investigatedinfluenceofgender, programofstudyandPCexperienceonunethicalcomputerusingbehaviorsofTurkishundergraduatestudentsfrom fivedifferentdepartments(notincludingtheDepartmentofBusinessAdministration)atAnadoluUniversityusing UECUBS.Akbulutetal(2008,a)exploredthetypesandreasonsofInternet-triggeredacademicdishonestyamong undergraduatestudentsindepartmentofeducationatAnadoluUniversityanddevelopedInternet-Triggered AcademicDishonestyScale(ITADS).Beycioglu(2009)conductedastudyaimedtodetermineprospectiveteachers’ unethicalcomputerusingbehaviorsatafacultyofeducationinTurkey.Beycioglu(2009)inhisstudyconcludedthat prospectiveteachersundermineethicalcomputeruse.The resultsrevealedthatfemalecandidateteachersweremore concernedaboutethicalissuesthanmalecandidateteachersandthatprospectiveteacherswhohaduptofiveyearsof PCexperienceconsideredethicalcomputerusemorethanthosewithfiveyearsandbeyond.
ResearchMethodology
Hypotheses
Inthisstudythreeresearchhypotheseswerestatedtoguidetheresearch.Theseareasfollows:
H0(1):18-19yearsoldstudentsand20-24yearsoldstudentshavethesameethicalbeliefsaboutcomputerusage. H0(2):Femaleandmalestudentshavethesameethicalbeliefsaboutcomputerusage.
H0(3):Studentswithlesscomputerusage(1-4hours)andstudentswithmorecomputerusage(morethan4hours)ina weekhavethesameethicalbeliefsaboutcomputerusage.
Participants
Thestudywasconductedinthespringsemesterin2009.143fulltimefreshmanstudentsintheDepartmentof BusinessAdministrationparticipatedthestudy.Thetotalnumberofquestionnairesusedaftertheexclusionof missingvalueswas110.Respondentstudents(excludingmissingvalues)consistedof36%ofallfreshmanstudents intheDepartmentofBusinessAdministration(309).SamplecharacteristicsareprovidedinTable1.
aWeek
Gender
1)Male
2)Female
Age
18-19
20-24
DurationofComputerUsagein
1-4hours
4hours
InternetExperience
1-4years
4years
E-MailUsers
Yes
No
Internetshopping
Yes
No
Table1.Participants’characteristics
Instrument
Thequestionnaireusedinthisstudyconsistsoftwoparts.Thefirstpartwasdevelopedtocollect demographicinformation.Thesecondpartcomprisedof28itemsmeasuringcomputerethicsawareness.10itemsin thesecondpartofthequestionnaireareadaptedfrom“TenCommandmentsofComputerEthics”.Remaining18 itemsareadaptedfrom“unethicalcomputerusingbehaviorscale(UECUBS)”developedbyNamluandOdabaşı,
2009.Respondentsansweredeachiteminthesurveyonafive-pointscalerangingfrom1(StronglyDisagree),2 (Disagree),3(Neutral),4(Agree)to5 (StronglyAgree).
Results
Theresultsindicatesensitivitytowardunethicalbehaviorinvarioussituationsamongfreshmanstudents. Thehighestmeanscore(Q12:2.44,withstandarddeviation(SD):1.345)regarded“CopyinglicensedCDs,DVDs”, secondhighestmeanscore(Q6:2.15,withSD:1.322)regarded“Copyoruseproprietarysoftwareforwhichyou havenotpaid”.Otherhighmeanscoreswere“Usingcrackprogrammes”(Q11:mean:2.05,SD:1.244),“Using materialslikepictures,animations,etc.,withouttheconsentoftheowner”(Q14:mean:2.03,SD:1.207).Thelowest meanscore(Q23:mean:1.11,SD:0.367)regarded“Sendingpornographicmailtopeoplewithoutrequest”.Other lowmeanscoreswere“Useacomputertosteal”(Q4:mean:1.13,SD:0.386),and“Deliberatelysendingavirusby
e-mail”(Q24:mean:1.15,SD:0.473).Table2showsdescriptivestatisticsoftheitems.
Theresultsofthehypothesestestingaresummarizedinthefollowingparagraphs.Theresultsoft-testareshownin
Table3andthegroupmeansarepresentedinTable4.
AgeDifferences
Thefirsthypothesisisaboutwhetherstudentsindifferentageshavethesameethicalbeliefsaboutcomputer usage.Respondentstudentsweregroupedaccordingtoageas18-19yearsoldand20-24yearsold.Theresultsshow that5ofthe28itemsresultedindifferencesbetween18-19yearsoldstudentsand20-24yearsoldstudents.Table3 showswheretherewasadifferenceamonggroupmeansbetween18-19yearsoldstudentsand20-24yearsold studentsfortheitems.Inallcasesbuttwo,meanscoreof18-19yearsoldstudentsishigherthanmeanscoreof20-
24yearsoldstudents.Thisfindingcoincideswiththeresultstootherstudies(ie.Masrom,IsmaelandHussein,
2008).Ageisanimportantfactorforstudentstotheirunderstandingofethicsbecomemature.Twogroupsbelieved thatuseacomputertoharmotherpeopleisunethical(Groups’meanscoresare1.26).Thereisnodifferencebetween agegroupsregardingto“CopyinglicensedCDs,DVDs”and“Copyoruseproprietarysoftwareforwhichyouhave notpaid”items.Theseitemshavethehighestmeanscoresforthesegroups.“Sendingpornographicmailtopeople withoutrequest”itemhasthelowestmeanscorefortwoagegroups.Thereisnostatisticallysignificantdifference betweentwogroupsregardingtothisitem.
GenderDifferences
Thesecondhypothesisisaboutwhetherfemaleandmalestudentshavethesameethicalbeliefsabout computerusage.Theresultsshowthat15ofthe28itemsresultedinstatisticallydifferencesbetweenmaleand femalestudents.Table3showswheretherewasadifferenceamonggroupmeansbetweenmaleandfemalestudents
fortheitems.Inallcases,meanscoreofmalestudentsishigherthanmeanscoreoffemalestudents.Femalestudents aremoresensitivethanmalestudentsregardingtounethicaluseofcomputers.Thelowestmeanscoreofmalesis
1.12(1.11forfemales)relatedto“Sendingpornographicmailtopeoplewithoutrequest”item.Maleandfemale studentsacceptthisasanunethicalbehavior.Thehighestmeanscoresofmalesare2.78and2.71relatedto “CopyinglicensedCDs,DVDs”and“Copyoruseproprietarysoftwareforwhichyouhavenotpaid”items.Female students’meanscoresoftheseitemsare2.16and1.7respectively.
DurationofComputerUseinaWeekDifferences
Thethirdhypothesisisaboutwhetherstudentswithlesscomputerusageandstudentswithmorecomputer usageinaweekhavethesameethicalbeliefsaboutcomputerusage.Theresultsshowthat14ofthe28items
resultedindifferencesbetweenstudentswithlesscomputerusageandstudentswithmorecomputerusageinaweek. Table3showswheretherewasadifferenceamonggroupmeansbetweenstudentswhousecomputer1-4hoursina weekandstudentswhousecomputermorethan4hoursinaweekfortheitems.Inallcases,meanofstudentswho usecomputermorethan4hoursinaweekishigherthanmeanofothergroup.Theseresultsindicatethatmore computerexperiencedstudentsshowlessethicalattitudestowardcomputerusage.Thehighestmeanscoreforthese groupsisalsorelatedto“CopyinglicensedCDs,DVDs.”.Meanscoresofthisitemare2.81and2.02respectively. Thelowestmeanscoreformorecomputerexperiencedstudentsis1.16anditisrelatedto“Useacomputertosteal.”. Thelowestmeanscoreforlesscomputerexperiencedstudentsis1.02anditisrelatedto“Sendingpornographicmail topeoplewithoutrequest.”.
Inthisstudy,wecouldn’tfindstatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweengroupsin5of28itemsregarding allthreehypotheses.TheseitemsareQ5,Q8,Q19,Q20,andQ25.
Conclusions
AscomputerandInternetusecontinuestogrow,usersandinstitutionsfacesomeethicalandlegalissues relatedwithusingthesetechnologies.Theaimsofthisstudyweretotestthreehypothesesregardingfreshman students’attitudestowardissuesofcomputerethics.Toachievetheseobjectives,authorscollecteddatafromone hundredandtenfreshmanstudentsintheDepartmentofBusinessAdministration.
Thestudyfoundthatthereweresignificantdifferencesinethicalattitudesaboutcomputerusagebetween
18-19yearsoldstudentsand20-24yearsoldstudents.20-24yearsoldstudentsweremoreawareaboutethical behaviorusingcomputerthan18-19yearsoldstudents.
Intermsofgenderfactor,theresultsofthisstudyindicatedthatsignificantdifferencesexistedbetweenmale andfemalefreshmanstudents.Itisfoundthat,femalestudents'attitudesaboutethicalcomputerusagebetterthan
malestudentsinall28cases.Thestudyshowed15ofthe28itemsresultedinstatisticallysignificantdifferences betweenmaleandfemalestudents.
Thestudyshowsthatmorecomputerexperiencedstudentsshowlessethicalattitudestowardcomputer usage.Inallcases,meanscoresofstudentswhousecomputermorethan4hoursinaweekishigherthanmean scoresofstudentswhousecomputer1-4hoursinaweek.Theresultsshowthat14ofthe28itemsresultedin statisticallysignificantdifferencesbetweenstudentsdependingondurationofcomputerusageinaweek.
Therearesomelimitationsofthisstudy.Therespondentsampleofthestudyiscomposedstudentsinthe DepartmentofBusinessAdministration.Studentsinotherdepartmentsmayshowdifferences.Anotherlimitationis thatstudyisconductedinapublicuniversityinTurkey.Besidesallthelimitations,thisstudymakesmeaningful contributiontofieldofstudyincomputerethicsawarenessamongundergraduatestudents.
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Privacy
MeanSD
Q1)Useacomputertoharmotherpeople.1.260.585
Q2)Interferewithotherpeople’scomputerwork.1.530.786
Q3)Snooparoundinotherpeople’scomputerfiles.1.410.782
Property
Q4)Useacomputertosteal.1.130.386
Q5)Useacomputertobearfalsewitness.1.170.446
Q6)Copyoruseproprietarysoftwareforwhichyouhavenotpaid.2.151.322
Q7) Use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper
compensation.1.500.843
thesyste
fellowh
permissio
Table2.DescriptiveStatisticsoftheItems
Ha(1) / Ha(2) / H(3)Privacy
Q1)Useacomputertoharmotherpeople. / p
0.993 / p
0.002** / p
0.056
Q2)Interferewithotherpeople’scomputerwork. Q3)Snooparoundinotherpeople’scomputerfiles. / 0.015*
0.016* / 0.019*
0.032* / 0.019*
0.118
Property
Q4)Useacomputertosteal.0.1720.028*0.426
Q5)Useacomputertobearfalsewitness.0.0240.0620.676
Q6)Copyoruseproprietarysoftwareforwhichyouhavenotpaid.0.2360.000**0.001**
Q7)Useotherpeople’s computer resources without authorization orproper compensation.
0.1420.0530.010**
Q8)Appropriateotherpeople’sintellectualoutput.0.9150.3320.520
Q11)Usingcrackprogrammes.0.1110.000**0.037* Q12)CopyinglicensedCDs,DVDs. 0.387 0.017* 0.002**
Q13)SellinglicensedCDs,DVDswhicharereproducedagainstregulations.0.3400.001**0.012*
Q14)Usingmaterialslikepictures,animations,etc.withouttheconsentofthe owner.
0.033*0.1700.022*
SocialImpact
Q9) Do not think about the social consequences of the program you are writingorthesystemyouaredesigning.
Q10)Donotuseacomputerinwaysthatensureconsiderationandrespectfor yourfellowhumans.
0.043*0.011*0.106
0.5460.033*0.605
Q15)Disturbingpeoplebyusingtheadvantageofvirtualenvironment.0.1470.000**0.026* Q16)CarryingapropagandainInternetthatthreatenssocialpeace. 0.051 0.478 0.022*
Q17)Allowingchildrentoplaycomputergamesof violence.0.4240.002**0.009**
Q18) Permitting children to enter inappropriate sites on Internet in Internet
Cafes.
Q19) Web masters’ delivering thepersonal information ofmembers toother people.
0.034*0.1820.004**
0.0760.2240.088
SafetyandQuality
Q20) Deliberately damaging thehardware ofcomputers designed for public use.
0.2210.1840.817
Q21)Copyingthedatainacomputerwithouttheconsentoftheowner.0.1380.015*0.036* Q22)Sendingaprivatemailtootherswithouttheconsentofthesender. 0.046* 0.194 0.155
Q23)Sendingpornographicmailtopeoplewithoutrequest.0.1410.7340.011* Q24)Deliberatelysendingavirusbye-mail. 0.084 0.080 0.036* Q25)Usingothers’personalinformationwithoutpermission. 0.078 0.520 0.090
Q26)Sendingone’spersonalinformationtoawebpagewithoutpermission.0.009**0.4940.097
Q27) Using the network of an individual or institution to access Internet withoutpermission.
0.0890.017*0.086
Q28)HackingthroughInternet.0.4930.001**0.262
*indicatessignificantatthe0.05level
**indicatessignificantatthe0.01level
Table3.TheResultsoft-test
Ha(1)Ha(2)H(3)
18-19 / 20-24yearsold / yearsold / Male / Female / 1-4hours / >4hours
N / 57 / 53 / 49 / 61 / 52 / 58
Privacy
Q1 / 1.26 / 1.26 / 1.47 / 1.10 / 1.15 / 1.36
Q2 / 1.70 / 1.34 / 1.73 / 1.36 / 1.35 / 1.69
Q3 / 1.58 / 1.23 / 1.59 / 1.26 / 1.29 / 1.52
Property
Q4 / 1.18 / 1.08 / 1.22 / 1.05 / 1.10 / 1.16
Q5 / 1.26 / 1.08 / 1.27 / 1.10 / 1.15 / 1.19
Q6 / 2.30 / 2.00 / 2.71 / 1.70 / 1.73 / 2.53
Q7 / 1.61 / 1.38 / 1.67 / 1.36 / 1.29 / 1.69
Q8 / 1.49 / 1.51 / 1.59 / 1.43 / 1.44 / 1.55
Q11 / 2.23 / 1.85 / 2.63 / 1.57 / 1.79 / 2.28
Q12 / 2.54 / 2.32 / 2.78 / 2.16 / 2.02 / 2.81
Q13 / 1.70 / 1.53 / 1.96 / 1.34 / 1.38 / 1.83
Q14 / 2.26 / 1.77 / 2.20 / 1.89 / 1.75 / 2.28
SocialImpact
Q9 / 1.65 / 1.36 / 1.71 / 1.34 / 1.38 / 1.62
Q10 / 1.32 / 1.25 / 1.43 / 1.16 / 1.25 / 1.31
Q15 / 1.47 / 1.28 / 1.65 / 1.16 / 1.23 / 1.52
Q16 / 1.32 / 1.13 / 1.27 / 1.20 / 1.12 / 1.33
Q17 / 1.60 / 1.45 / 1.84 / 1.28 / 1.29 / 1.74
Q18 / 1.42 / 1.13 / 1.39 / 1.20 / 1.08 / 1.47
Q19 / 1.28 / 1.11 / 1.27 / 1.15 / 1.12 / 1.28
SafetyandQuality
Q20 / 1.21 / 1.11 / 1.22 / 1.11 / 1.15 / 1.17
Q21 / 1.35 / 1.19 / 1.43 / 1.15 / 1.15 / 1.38
Q22 / 1.65 / 1.32 / 1.61 / 1.39 / 1.37 / 1.60
Q23 / 1.16 / 1.06 / 1.12 / 1.10 / 1.02 / 1.19
Q24 / 1.23 / 1.08 / 1.24 / 1.08 / 1.06 / 1.24
Q25 / 1.32 / 1.13 / 1.27 / 1.20 / 1.13 / 1.31
Q26 / 1.30 / 1.08 / 1.22 / 1.16 / 1.12 / 1.26
Q27 / 2.11 / 1.70 / 2.22 / 1.66 / 1.69 / 2.10
Q28 / 1.67 / 1.53 / 2.00 / 1.28 / 1.48 / 1.71
Table4.GroupMeans