Genderissues 10 Yearsafterthe Women in Transition Report: Russian Federation

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GenderIssues 10 Yearsafterthe“Women in Transition” Report: Russian Federation

TheConstitutionoftheRussianFederationdeclaresthat man and woman shall have equal rights and liberties and equal opportunities for their pursuit (Article 19.3). InRussia, however, manygenderparityissuesare quite acute. Malelifeexpectancyismuchlessandtheir education level is decreasing as against that of females. Atthesametime, womenaremuchlessrepresentedindecisionmakingwiththepersistinghistoricalgapinwages in state-financed sectors where mostly women are employed, widespread direct or indirect discriminatory practices in respect of women and no integral mechanism of protection of women from violence in place.

Part А

In 1999-2010, the total population oftheRussianFederationdecreasedby5,600,000 or 3.9%.Asat1 January2010,it was141,900,000, increasingby10,500 over the year. ThepopulationgrowthinRussiaobservedforthefirsttimesince1994 wasdueboth to a considerably less natural loss and increased migration growth.

Thecontributionofthemigrationcomponentinthepopulationgrowthhasinvariablydecreasedpractically up to 2003. Increasedmigrationgrowththereafteralongwithless natural lossresulted in slower population reduction rates. In2008,naturallosswasby71% compensated by migration growth (by 55% in 2007, by 22.5% in 2006). In 2009,naturallossreductionwasthe main factor of the population growth in Russia.

Accordingtointernationalcriteria, populationisconsideredoldifthe share of population aged 65+ is more than 7 percent. Currently, aboutoneineightRussians, or 13% of the country population, is aged 65+. The ageing of population is much more typical for women. The share of womenfromtheaboveage groups is more than two thirds (about 69%).

Russianpopulationisageing: by 5 years over 20 years. TheaverageageofRussiancitizensas at 1 January 2010 was 38.9 years: for males 36.2 and for females 41.2.

Intheperiodunderreviewtotalmalepopulationreducedby3,400,000, female population – by 2,200,000. Theupwardtrendofnumerical prevalence of females over males was clearly noted. Asat1 January2010, thisexcess amounted to 10,700,000, as at 1 January 1999 – 9,400,000. Theabovefiguresdemonstratethegrowinggender disproportion in the structure of the Russian population. Greater number of womenthanmeninthetotal population is observed as from age 29,the figure increasing with the increase of years. Suchanadverseproportionisduetopersistinghigh level of male premature mortality.

Byearly2010, therewere1,162 females per 1,000 males, as against 1,136 in 1999. Reviewofage-specificfemale/maleproportionsshowsthatforpopulationsaged0-4 and 0-17 the proportion is practically the same: 947-952 females per 1,000 males (as at the beginning of 2010). However, inolderagegroupsthere is observed an express trend of female prevalence growth. In 1999,therewere1,048 femalesper 1,000 males intheagegroup 18-59 as against 1,073 in 2010, and 1,898 and 1,956 females, respectively, in the age group 60+.

From 2000, anannualincreaseinlivebirthshasbeenobservedinRussia: from 1,215,000 to1,762,000,withtheboys/girls proportion in live births (total and to women under the age of 20)remaining stable: 100 births of girls per на 105-106 births of boys.

Crudebirthratefortheperiodhasincreasedfrom1.157 to 1.537 per 1 woman, thus reaching the average European level. To a large extent, thebirthrategrowthwasduetothestatesupportprovidedfrom 2007to families with children;in particular, a great positive role was played by the program of federal subsidies for families with more than one child (“maternal capital”). Thegeneralsocio-economicstabilizationin the first half of the 2000s also had a positive effect.Eveninthecrisis-affected2009 and the first half of 2010 the birth rate increased. Mostimportantly, thebirthrategrowthhas been seen primarilyin middle and old age groups of mothers who mostly give birth to second and subsequent children.

In 2009, the “Family and Natality” sample survey was conducted in 30 constituentterritoriesoftheRussianFederation. Thesampleincluded2,000 respondents. Onefourthoffemalerespondentswhogavebirthtosecondchildin2007-2009saidthatthis was in one way or another due to the introduced demographic policy measures.

Oftotalnumberofbirthsabout7.5% wereto young mothers under the age of 20. In 1999-2010, theshareofbirthstomothersunder the age of 20somewhatincreased: from 28.9 births per 1,000 mothers aged 15-19 to 30.3 in 1999 and 2010, respectively.

Birthrategrowthobservedinthe 2000sasagainstitsreductioninthe 1990s evidences if not coping with the negative trend, then its discontinuation.

Atthesametime, fall in the birth-rate in the first half of the1990s was boosted by the interaction of two factors. Thefirstfactorreflectedtheadequateresponseofthe population to the drop in the living standards and quality of life (“shock therapy”economic reforms). Inthatcontextunsatisfiedneedofmanycouplestohavethe desired number of children was expressed either in rejection of next births or their delay until better time. Itcanbeassumedthattheincreaseinthenumberofbirthsfrom the early 2000s was to a certain extent due to implementation of family plans in respect of children.

Anotherfactorresponsible for falling birth rates notedinthefirst “WomeninTransition” reportisconnectedwiththe development of new types of reproductive behavior in youth related not so much to deterioration as to changes in the life style. Here, itshouldbenotedthatthechangedroleofwomeninsocietywill undeniably affect their reproductive plans. Theresultsofthe 2002 populationcensusinRussia revealed a strong correlation between the education levelof a woman and the number of childbirths. Consideringthateducationleveloffemalepopulationgenerallyhas beengrowing,it can be safely assumed that career development will be a limitation for the implementation of reproductive intentions. Resultsofthefuture2010 population census will prove or disprove this hypothesis.

Overthelasttenyearsnon-maritalbirthratehasstabilized at 26-27 percent of total births. Inthe 1990s, itpracticallydoubledinRussia.However, currentstatisticsindicatethathalfofsuchbirthsareregisteredpursuanttoanapplication made by both parents which, to some extent, evidences the existence of the family. The2002 populationcensusregistered3,000,000 unmarried couples (or 10% of the total number of couples). Thefuturepopulation censuswillshowwhethertheirnumberhasincreasedor not in the following years.

Therearetwoage-specificpeaksofnon-maritalbirths: young girls under the age of 20and women aged 30+. Whilethefirstpeakobservedintheyoungestagegroupsreflectsthelower age of consent andincreasednumber of antenuptial pregnancies, the second peak largely reflects conscious desire to have a child without registration of marriage refusedby both partners.From 1999, theshareofnon-maritalbirthsintotalbirthsto young women has considerably increased: from 41to 47.7%. Themaximumnumberofnon-maritalbirthstowomenunder the age of 20(81,300) was registered in 2004 (as against 62,700 in 2009).

Fromthe2000s, outreach activities aimed at informing womenabout various contraception methods have been conducted. Theyhavealreadybroughtpositiveresults. From1999, thenumberofabortions (includingmini-abortions) hasdecreasedbyabout900,000, whiletheabortionrateper 1,000 womenaged15-49 hasreducedfrom55.5 (1999) to 34.2 (2009), and per 100 births –from 179.4 to 73.7 in 1999 and 2009, respectively. Reducednumbersofabortionsareobservedin all age groups.

Innationalcontraceptionpractice, intrauterine devices have been“replaced” by hormonal contraception which specialists consider to be more advanced.Thus, in 1999, 6,400,000 womenused intrauterine devicesas against 2,900,000 using hormonal contraception, in 2009 – 4,800,000 and 4,200,000, respectively.

In 2009, therewere1,700,000 births (1,200,000 in 1999) withtheshareof easy deliveries increasing from 31% to 37.5%. Thegrowthwasdue, interalia, totheincreasedshareofpregnant women who receivedcounselling assistanceduring pregnancy. Inrecentyears, a number ofmeasureshavebeenintroduced encouraging women to visit antenatal clinicsin early pregnancy.InRussia, theshareofbirthsattendedbyskilledpersonnelremainsquite high (99.7% in 2009).

Thelastdecadewascharacterizedbyaconsiderabledeterioration of women’s health. Ascompared to1999, menstrual disturbance, complications during pregnancy, childbirth and postnatal period have increased about 1.5-fold, infertility – by one third, incidence of malignant neoplasms, active tuberculosis, alcoholism – by approximately one fourth.

Prevalenceof human immunodeficiency virus is growing. In 2009, there were 469,000reported cases of antibodies to HIV revealed in blood using immune blotting analysis, of them 35% women.RegisteredcasesofHIVshowthatmale/female proportions are quite stable.

Inthelasttenyears, therewasregisteredaconsiderablereductioninthenumberof adolescents and young people aged 15-19 with diagnosed sexually transmitted diseases:syphilis –by 6 times, gonorrhea and trichomoniasis –4 times, clamidiosis –2 times. Obviously, suchreductionwasduetooutreach activities among youth.

Theresultsofthe2008 samplesurvey “ImpactofBehavioral FactorsonPopulationHealth” (2,204 personsinterviewed in 24 constituent territories of the Russian Federation) showed that for the vast majority of population aged 15+ (85%) good health is a priority basic value.Also, mostrespondents(84%) perfectly well realize thattheirhealthlargely depends on their own behavior. Atthesametime, inpractice, thebulkofrespondentsare quite careless about their health. Manyareunawareofthelifestyleandbehaviorthatpreventdiseases and are exposed to impact of negative social norms and traditions. Accordingtothesurveyresults, theshareofthosewhoineverydaylife really take care of their health is no more than 25% of respondents, with women being morecareful about their health than men.

Fromearly2000s, atrendtowardsreduction inchild(including infant) and adolescent mortalityrate has been observed.Under-1 andunder-5 mortalityratehaspracticallyfallen by half with similar reduction rates for boys and girls.

Mortalityrateforpopulationaged5-14 and 15-19 hasalsodropped but at the slower rate.

Dataonchildmortalityrateduetounnaturalcauseshavebeendevelopedinthe Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat)since2006. Therecordeddynamicscorrespondswiththecrudemortalityratetrend, withalmost the double gap in indicators for boys and girls: in 2006,46.2 and 23.9 per 100,000 population of relevant gender and age, in 2009 – 34.7 and 19.8. Atthesametime, suicideratehaspracticallyremainedthesame: 30.6 boys and 8.5 girls per 100,000 population of relevant gender and age.

Providedobstetric aid andreducednumber of abortions result in gradual reduction of maternal mortality rate. Whileinthefirsthalfofthe 1990sthere were 52 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, in 1999 the figure was44.2 and in 2009 – 22. Lastyear, a total of 388 women (943 in 1990) died because ofcomplications during pregnancy, childbirth and postnatal period.

Russiaisamongcountrieswiththe highest mortality rates andoneofthegreatestgapsingender-specificlifeexpectancyat birth(11.9 years in 2009), due to high mortality of males ofactive working age. Inthelastfouryears thesituationbegan toimprove. In 2009, malelifeexpectancyatbirthincreasedasagainst 2006 by 2.4 years, female life expectancy – by 1.4 years. Malelifeexpectancylargelyincreasedduetoreductionof mortality in active working age, female life expectancy – duetoreductionof mortality in active working and older age.

HighmortalityduetoexternalcausesofdeathandcardiovasculardiseasescontinuetobethemainchallengesindemographicdevelopmentofRussia greatlyimpactedbyalcoholabuse. In 2009, causesdirectlyrelatedtoalcoholuse (alcoholic cardiomyopathy, accidentalalcoholpoisoning, alcohol-inflicted hepatopathy, chronic alcoholism, alcoholic psychoses, nervous system degenerationduetoalcoholabuse, chronic pancreatitis) causeddeathof50,500 menand18,100women. However, itsimpactonmortalityduetoothercausesisconsiderablygreater. Binge drinkingisapparentlyrelatedtohighmortalityduetoexternalcausesofdeath;however, suchrelationcanalsobetrackedincasesof premature mortality due to many diseases in whose ethiologythe exogenic component has been artificially strengthened.

Reductionofmortalityhasbeenobservedinrespectofallbasic causes of death except neoplasms, whichnow rank second in the mortality structure following cardiovascular diseases, the place held by external causes of death until 2006.

Ofalldeaths,about30% arepersonsofactiveworkingage (more than 560,000 annually), of them 80% males.

Causes connected with cardiovascular diseases rank first inthelistofcausesofdeathof able-bodied population, followed by external causes. Suicides, road accidents, homicides, acute alcoholism are responsible for high rates of mortalityduetoexternalcausesof death – more than 50% of deaths due to all external causes of death.

Unfortunately, currentdemographicstatisticshaveverylimited data on family formation and family relations in Russia. Onlypopulationcensusesandsamplesocio-demographicsurveysallow to get a better insight into existing processes.

Accordingto the 2002 population census, there were 34,000,000 couples in Russia(36,000,000 in 1989). Forthefirsttime, datawerecollectedonunregistered unions. Ofthetotalnumberofcouples,3,000,000 wereunregisteredunions.

Fromearly1980s, areductioninthenumberofregisteredmarriageshasbeenobserved. Itwasespeciallynoticeablein 1989-1995, followed by relative stabilization. In 2002, alittlemorethan 1,000,000 marriageswereregistered(1,400,000 in 1989). Theshareofrepeatedmarriagesremainedstablein the period betweenthepopulationcensuses: 25-28% of total marriages.

Traditionally, thenumberofwomenstatingthattheyaremarried is more than the number of married men (by 28,000 in 1989 andby 65,000 in 2002).

Accordingtothe 2002 populationcensusdata, thenumberof never married and divorced increased by 40%,of widowed – by 10%. Familyformationhasbeennegativelyaffectedby increased number of divorces.In 1990,therewere3.8 divorcesper 1,000 population, in 2009 – 4.9 divorces. Overthe20 years,marriage ratesdecreaseduntil1998 (5.8 marriages per 1,000 population),followed by their increase (8.5 marriages in 2009).

Inthelate1990s-early2000s, approximately650,000-750,000 marriageswereannulledannually(583,000 marriages in 1989), resulting in about 400,000 children having one parent by the time of the population census.Accordingtothepopulationcensusdata, ofthetotalnumberofhouseholdswith children under the age of 18 at the time of the population census, a little more than 14% (2,960,000 households) were single parent households. In112,000 householdssingleparentsraised 3 and more children underage 18.

Morethanonethirdofdivorceswereyoung couples that had lived together for less than five years. Accordingly, itresultedinincreasedshareofdivorcedinthemaritalstructureofpopulation, particularly among women for whom repeated marriage is often improbable due to gender and age-specific disproportions.

Accordingtothe “FamilyandNatality” surveymentionedabove,the age of women at first marriage is increasing. Whilebefore 1990 45% ofrespondentsatfirstmarriagewere aged 18-19, in 2005-2009the proportion of persons of that age was 18%, or 2.5 times less. Ontheotherhand, only 7% ofrespondentswhogot marriedin 1990-1994 first married after 25 years of age. The proportion of such persons first married in 2005-2009 was 22 percent. According to the survey data, over 15 years (from 1990-1994 to 2005-2009)averageageatfirstmarriageincreased from 20.0 to 22.1, or by more than 2 years.

Averageageofmenatfirstmarriageinthatperiodincreasedevenmore: from 22.3 years for those who got married in 1990-1994 to 24.9 for those who first married in 2005-2009, or by 2.6 years. Before 1990, about 15% of respondents firstmarred at the age of 18-19, 32.5% – at 20-21. Theproportionoffirstmarried in 2005-2009 was 6%and 15%, respectively. Bycontrast, theshareoffirstmarried at the age of 25+ hasincreasedmore than 4-fold: from 10% (first married before 1990) to 43% in 2005-2009.

Traditionally, Russia is a country with a high education level. The2002 populationcensusrecorded109,400,000 peopleaged15+ witheducationfrombasic general to tertiary, or 90.2% of the relevant age group. Asagainst1989, thepopulationwithsucheducationlevelhas increased by 18,300,000 or 20%.

Oftotalpopulationaged15+, 71,400,000 (59%) havehigher, secondaryorbasic vocational education. In 1989-2002, thenumberofspecialistswithtertiaryeducationincreasedby6,600,000 (52%), withsecondary vocational education by 11,200,000 (52%), and with basic vocational education by 700,000 (about 5%). Forthefirsttimethecensusrecordedthe number of persons with postgraduate education – 400,000.

Thepopulationwithsecondary (complete) education has increased by 1,000,000 (5%). However, thepopulationaged15+ withbasic general and primary education decreased. Thatwasduetochangesintheagestructure, whenthegenerationwithratherhigheducationlevelmoved to older age groups and most representatives of the large generation born in the first half of the 1980s that finished school in mid-1990s continued education. Thus, accordingtothecurrentstatistics,the numberofstudentsinpublictertiaryandspecializedsecondaryeducation in 1996-2001 has continuously increased: in tertiary education – from 2,800,000 in 1996/97 academic year to 4,300,000 in 2000/2001 academic year; in specialized secondary education fromс 2,000,000 to 2,300,000, respectively. Thisresultedinthegrowthofhigher and secondary vocational educationlevel among youth. Thepopulationaged16-29 withtertiaryeducationhasincreasedas against 1989 by 42.5%, with secondary vocational education – by 7.7%. Inthatagegroup, thereare112 personswithtertiaryeducationper 1,000 population(84 in 1989) and 225 persons with secondary vocational education (223 in 1989).

A22% increaseinpopulationwithbasicgeneraleducation(9 grades)islargelyduetoinclusion in this number of students who have not yet met theeducational standard. However, itshouldbenotedthatabout 500,000 youngpeopleaged16-29 hadelementary general education,and in 1989-2002 that population increased 2.1-fold. Note that 70% of such young people did not attend educational institutions at the time of the population census.

Thetrendtowards equalization of educationlevels of males and females continued.In1989-2002, proportionofmaleswitheducationfromtertiarytobasic increased by 8%, that of females – by 15.5%. Asaresult, thegapintheeducationlevelsof males and females has considerably reduced.Forthefirsttimethe2002 populationcensusshowedhigher tertiary education level of females as compared to males. Thatis, atrendtowardsstrongergender asymmetry was noted in Russia: education level of males is ever more lagging behind that of females.

IntheRussianeducationsystempre-primaryeducation(ISCED 0)isnoteducational as such, i.е., its successful completion is not sufficient for receiving any education level. Thislevelisnotobligatoryforcontinuededucationat the next level.

From2000, thenumberofinstitutions of pre-primary education has decreased by about 5,000: from51,300 to 45,600 (2008), with the number of children attending such institutions increasing from 4,200,000 to 5,200,000.In 1999, therewere112 boysper 100 girlsin pre-primary education, in 2009 – 107 boys. Morethan80% ofthetotalnumberofchildren attending kindergartens are children aged 3+.

Atthesametime, in the context of birthrategrowthalong with reductionofthenumberofinstitutions of pre-primary education, parents have to apply for enrolment immediately after the birth of the child. Thisresultedinthe 7.5-foldincreaseinthenumberofchildrenonthewaitinglist,withpre-primaryeducationenrolment rate ofchildrenaged1-6 increasing in the same period from 54%to 59% (there is no differentiation in proportion of boys/girls in early childhood care in Russia).

IntheRussian system basic education (ISCED 1) (1-4grades)isthefirststage of education proper and coincides with the beginning of the compulsory education in institutions of general education. Successfulcompletionofthislevelissufficient for achieving the elementary general education level. Second-leveleducation, lowersecondaryeducation(ISCED 2) (5-9grades),isthesecondstageofcompulsoryeducationsuccessful completion of which coincides with the completion of compulsory education in institutions of general education and is sufficient for obtaining basic general education.

Third-leveleducation, uppersecondaryeducation(ISCED 3) –general (complete) secondary education – isthethird, final stage of compulsory education and can be obtained in either institutions of general education or, along with vocational education, in institutions of basic or secondary vocational education. Thisstageincludes9-11 (12) gradesofdayinstitutions of complete secondary education. Basicvocationaleducationisincludedinthisstage irrespective ofavailability of Certificate of Secondary (Complete) General Education.

From 2000, enrolmentin 1-4 gradesofdayinstitutionsof general education has dropped from 5,700,000 (2000/01 academic year) to 5,000,000 (2008/09 academic year);in 5-9 grades – from 11,000,000to 6,400,000;in 10-11(12) grades from 2,800,000 to 1,700,000; in institutions of basic vocational education – from1,700,000 to 1,100,000.

Thisdropreflectsthenextdemographic “wave” due to fall in birth rate in the 1990s.Asforthegender-specificproportion, for the first two levels there is observed some increase in the proportion of girls (within one percent). However, theshareofboyscontinues to prevail amounting to slightly more than half of total enrolment (51-52%). Atthesametime, inupperschooltheproportionofgirlsintotal enrolment is more than half (55%), showing a certain downward trend in recent years.

Fifth-leveleducation, thefirststageoftertiaryeducation(ISCED 5В),leads toobtainingsecondaryvocational education in institutions of secondary vocational education and tertiary education with secondary vocational education programs. Fifth-leveleducation, thefirststageoftertiaryeducation(ISCED 5А), leads to obtaining higher professional education in institutions of tertiary education.

Lookingatthedynamicsofthenumberofeducationalinstitutionsandorganizationsbylevel, some reduction in the number of specialized secondary educational establishments (by 80 in 2000-2008) and a considerable increase in institutions of tertiary education(by 169 or about 20%) can be clearly noted. Suchanincreaseisexpresslydueto status value of tertiary education and the need to be competitive on the labor market. Whileenrolmentinspecializedsecondaryeducation has reduced by 5% as against 2000, the number of students enrolled in tertiary education has become half as much.

Privateinstitutionsoftertiaryeducation, theshareofwhichin tertiary education by 2008/2009 academic yearwas 42%, have considerably contributed to the development of the education services market. Inaddition, therearemultiplebranches of such institutions (more than 1,700). Generally, overthelast 15 yearsthenumberofinstitutions of tertiary education has doubled to 1,134 in the last academic year.

Atthesametime, inthecontextofincreasingnumberofeducationalinstitutions, thequality of education becomes poorer, which is true both for public and private institutions.

While fullgenderparityisobservedinspecializedsecondaryeducation, girls prevail in tertiary education, their proportion being a little less than 60%.

Inproportionoffemale/maleteachersinpre-primaryandbasiceducation (firstthreelowerlevels) female teachers expressly prevail: in institutions of pre-primary education practically 100%, in institutions of general education (lower school) –98%, in upper school – about 90%. Proportionoffemaleteachersinbasicvocationaleducationisabout 65%, inspecialized secondary education the figure is somewhat higher (75-78%). Proportionoffemaleteachersintertiaryeducationis slightly more than half (55%).

Suchnoticeabledisproportionis due totraditionally lowwagesin the Russian education system. Averagemonthlywageineducationisalittlemore(about65%) thanhalfof average monthly wage in the economy generally. Ifwecomparetwostate-financedsectors:educationandhealth, thewage level in education is about 85% of the average in the health sector.

Regrettably, itshouldbenotedthatinRussiawage levels of males and females differ. Thus, forexample, accordingtothesamplesurveyinOctober2007, average earned rate for highly skilled male specialists in education was 77.4 rubles as against 71.3 rubles for female specialists.Therefore, wagelevelforfemalesisbelowthe wage level for males and is equal to 92%. Based on theresultsofthecross-sectional samplesurveyin October 1995, the gap was not so substantial (in all, 98%).

InRussia, childorphanhoodcontinuestobeaverysevereproblemwhich had asteadyupwardtrendsincethe 1990s; only from 2006 there has been observed a reduction in the number of children left without parental care (127,000and 106,700, respectively). Genderproportionshavebecomemorebalanced. Whilein2006therewere140 boysleftwithoutparentalcareper 100 girls, in 2009 there were 120boys.

Themaingoalofthepolicyofdeinstitutionalizationoforphansandchildrenleft without parental care is the removal of children from residential care and placement in family-based care.Variousformsoffamily-basedplacementareincreasinglyintroduced. Thus, whilein2000 theproportionofchildreninfamily-basedcare(incareofguardiansorfosterparents, infamily-typehomes, adopted)to children in residential care was 2.7, in 2008 it was 4.2.

Inpupilsof boarding schoolsboysprevail,such prevalence increasing over years. Thus, whilein2001 therewere78 girlsper 100 boysinboardingschools, in 2009 there were 64 girls.

Internationaladoptionsremainachallengingproblem, inter aliaduetomanynotorious cases of murder of children and their return back to Russia. Accordingtodatafromthe Ministry of Education and ScienceofRussia, in 2009,3,815 Russian children were adopted internationally, or about twice as less than five years ago. Thenumberofchildrenadoptednationallyin the same period increased by 27%, from 7,000 to 8,900.

The situation ofchildren left in maternity hospitals requiresspecialattention. Theexistingpracticesinmaternity hospitalsandinfanthomesleadtocertain difficulties related to the establishment of the child’s status and possibility of his/her adoption. Maternityhospitallawyersarenotalwaysawareoftheconsequences of the registration of a child left by mother in a health care establishment. Ifshehasnopassportandarecordaboutthechildismade according to oral information provided by her, later search in order to establish the child’s status will be impossible and placement of the child in foster care will be delayed for a long time.

Violenceagainstwomencontinuestobeacriticalsocial problem. According totheNationalIndependentCommission onthe Rights of WomenandViolenceagainstWomen in Russia, every hour one woman is killed by her husband or partner, every thirty minutes one rape takes place, thousands of women annually become victims of traffickers.

Sexual crimes (rape and sexual violence) are a widespreadformofviolenceagainstwomen recorded inofficialstatistics. In2003-2009, thedynamicsofsuchcrimeswasuneven. By2005thenumberofsuchcrimeshadgrownfrom 8,000 to 9,200, then there was a decrease to 5,400 cases.

Ifwelookatthisphenomenoninthelonger retrospective, according to official statistics the number of cases reduced almost threefold asagainst 1990. In 2008, there were a little more than 5,000 convictionsforrape,a threefold reduction over the period.Theshareofyoungpeopleundertheageof30 intotalconvictions for such crimes has dropped from 83%to 74%.

Highlevelof latency ofthisphenomenonisduebothtovictims’ reluctancetoseekhelpand law enforcement agencies’ unwillingness toinstitute proceedings in respect of such illegal acts. Domesticviolenceisevermorelatentasalmostno statistical demonstration is available.Specializedcentersprovidingsupporttofemale victims of violence, including domestic violence, are few. Inall, therewereabout50 suchcentersinRussiarunbynon-governmentalorganizations, buttheir number has recently reduced because of lack of state interest and support.