SELF-EFFICACY AND TEACHING STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 1
Self-Efficacy and Teaching Students with Disabilities:
An Annotated Bibliography
Student Name
Liberty University
Abstract
The field of special education is consistently plagued with staffing shortages due to high attrition. Identifiably, burnout leads to many teachers’ decisions to seek career opportunities outside of special education. Research indicates that teacher burnout is derived from low levels of self-efficacy. In efforts to increase job-satisfaction and competency within the many specializations which make-up special education, research supports that teacher education programs should be all-inclusive of the various disabilities and settings which teacher candidates may service following graduation. Additionally, continual and applicable professional development opportunities, for both special education teachers and general education teachers, can support greater perceived self-efficacy in teaching students with disabilities.
Keywords: self-efficacy, special education, burnout
Self-Efficacy and Teaching Students with Disabilities:
An Annotated Bibliography
Early Intervention and Special Education Practitioners
Bruder, Dunst, and Mogro-Wilson (2011), investigated the self-reported competence of practitioners who design and implement instruction for preschool students with disabilities in the United States. Using two surveys, the authors gathered feedback from 1,892 participants. The survey assessed the participants’ self-efficacy beliefs of confidence and competence in six separate practices. Overall, the results obtained indicate that participants perceive themselves to be more confident, than they are competent, in using both procedural and intervention practices. The only practice which the participants found themselves to be more competent, than they are confident, was teaming and collaboration. When placed on a continuum, the participants’ highest ranking scores in both confidence and competence were in the practice of teaming and collaboration. The authors indicated that future investigation on the positive and negative experiences which shape a practitioner’s self-efficacy is necessary. Relatively, the authors implied that further investigation is required on the effects of pre-service training on self-efficacy as a professional practitioner.
Preparation of Teachers of Students with Autism
Busby, Ingram, Bowron, Oliver, and Lyons (2012) indicate that the ineffective teaching of children with autism stems from a lack of motivation and low self-efficacy. Based upon this, the authors sought participation from graduate education students who reported no experience with teaching students with autism. Using a Nominal Group Technique, participants were shown video clips of instruction of a child with autism. Following the video viewing, participants were then asked what challenges they perceived would be experienced as a teacher of a student with autism. From this, the following five challenges were identified: highly individualized instruction, time-consuming parent-teacher collaboration, disruption in the general education setting, extensive data collection for students’ IEPs, and general education teachers’ lack of knowledge for inclusion. From these challenges, perceived needs were derived. Overall, the findings from this study represent that there are barriers to the effective inclusion of students with autism. In order to enhance the self-efficacy of teachers providing inclusion to students with autism in the inclusion setting, the authors offered curriculum recommendations for pre-service teaching curriculums. As the authors indicate, a limitation of this study is the population being comprised of only Troy University students. Special education preparation programs could utilize the design of this study to determine whether or not their students feel equipped for serving students with autism following graduation.
High Quality Special Education Teachers
Carlson, Lee, and Schroll (2004) used factor analysis to test five teacher quality factors. The five teacher quality factors analyzed were experience, credentials, self-efficacy, classroom practices, and professional activities. Data was gathered via telephone interviews from a total of 1,475 special education teachers who taught in grade levels ranging from preschool to secondary education. Overall, the authors conclude that the factors which contribute to teacher quality for special education teachers are consistent with those of general educators. Specifically, the authors indicate that the self-efficacy and teachers’ beliefs are important for special education teacher quality. However, the authors imply that further research is necessary to determine whether self-efficacy scores are derived from varying personality characteristics or from pre-service preparation programs.
Self-Efficacy and Special Education Referrals
Identifying the referral for assessment as the first step in providing students with special education services, Egyed and Short (2006) investigated the relationship between teaching efficacy and referring student for assessment. Since teacher burnout is a derivative of low levels of self-efficacy, the authors also investigated the influence of burnout on the likelihood to refer. Overall, the study evidenced that teachers, who were uncertain about whether to refer a student, reported higher levels of burnout, whereas teachers who reported lower levels of burnout reported greater certainty about when to refer a student. Lastly, the authors were unable to identify a relationship between self-efficacy and likelihood to refer. The authors provide the implication that further training and professional development on behavior management could increase teachers’ self-efficacy and allow for more perceived confidence when determining the true need for a referral.
Special Education and Students who Exhibit Challenging Behaviors
Gebbie, Ceglowski, Taylor, and Meils (2012) conducted interviews before, during, and after the implementation of a training on positive behavior supports with five preschool special education teachers. The teachers included in this study identified that they required additional support with dealing with challenging behaviors in the classroom. The trainings provided to the teachers were available via online formats and all interviews were audio taped for subsequent analysis. The information derived from this study demonstrates that all special education teachers, novice and expert, can benefit from continued professional development. The authors also indicate that social interaction with colleagues supports teacher self-efficacy. However, the authors imply that future research is required to determine if interaction with colleagues in an online format is as beneficial to teacher efficacy when compared to a face-to-face format.
Teachers’ Learned Helplessness
Gotshall and Stefanou (2011) investigated teachers’ self-perceptions on their abilities to teach students with disabilities. The sample included 33 elementary and middle school teachers, and four student teachers. Participants completed four separate questionnaires. Overall, this study revealed that a relationship does exist between self-efficacy and learned helplessness. Based upon this relationship, working environments need to support the self-perceived empowerment of teachers in the presence of difficulty. Also, teachers who receive more support/consultation reported lower levels of learned helplessness, whereas teachers who reported less support/consultation demonstrated greater degrees of learned helplessness. This study does provide evidence that continual and on-going support for teachers of students with disabilities can have beneficial impressions.
Response to Challenging Behaviors
Hastings and Brown (2002) provided questionnaires to 70 school staff members who work with students with either intellectual disabilities or autism. The questionnaires were aimed at measuring behavioral knowledge, behavioral causes, efficacy in managing challenging behaviors, and emotional consequences to challenging behavior. The authors identify a relationship between their emotional reactions to challenging behavior and perceived behavioral causes. Additionally, increased behavioral knowledge related to emotional reactions to challenging behavior. Also, teachers’ low levels of self-efficacy did predict the emotions of fear, anxiety, depression, and anger. The authors imply that future research should highlight the change of teachers’ self-efficacy over time and the impact of teachers’ self-efficacy on challenging behaviors.
Students with Self-Injurious Behaviors
Jasper and Morris (2012) specifically investigated the self-efficacy of special educators who teach students who display non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors. Using a 3-point Likert scale, the authors collected data from 390 special educators. Of the 390 sampled, 305 participants agreed that they work, or have worked, with students with non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors. Additionally, 276 participants reported that they were untrained to manage the non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors of students. Teachers who had been trained to manage these behaviors reported higher levels of self-efficacy. Profoundly, many educators who work with students who display non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors have received no training. Overall, the authors imply that there is a great need for further specialized training for special education teachers. As this article depicts, an increase in training relates to an increase in self-efficacy for special education teachers.
Skill Ratings for Teaching Students with Disabilities
King-Sears, Carran, Dammann, and Arter (2012) took a sample of teacher education students from four colleges and universities. The researchers developed a survey tool, which was derived from a tool included content produced by the Council for Exceptional Children for preparing special educators. Each survey was completed by a student had completed student teaching. The survey encompassed the following six domains: instructional strategies, learning environment, instructional practice, assessment, professional practice, and behavior. When compared, special education students rated their self-efficacy of working with students with disabilities higher than the general education students. Additionally, the researchers sought to investigate the influence of traditional student teaching on the self-efficacy ratings of general and special education teachers. Overall, the authors found that traditional student teaching promotes higher self-ratings in all domains, except behavior. Thus, the authors imply that new teacher mentorships/orientations could benefit from these findings in order to prepare all teachers to work with students with disabilities. Also, the rating scores provide evidence for the benefit of traditional student teaching placements.
Intern Teachers and Teacher Preparation
Lee, Patterson, and Vega (2011) discuss the increased likelihood, when compared to general educators, of special education teachers leaving the profession after the first year. Based upon this, the authors collected data, using a survey-method, from 154 special education intern teachers in California. In California, the intern teacher is provided special education licensure for a 2 year period, while they complete the required coursework for full licensure. The surveys provided included items based upon personal teaching efficacy and general teaching efficacy. The authors found that the quality of support received is related to personal teaching efficacy. They also concluded that heavy workloads do affect the self-efficacy of special education teachers. The authors provide the implication that school districts must work to implement effective supports, to include supportive and healthy relationships, for intern teachers. Lastly, the authors discuss the importance of quality traditional teacher education programs, including student teaching, to the overall self-efficacy of new teachers.
Serving Students in the Inclusion Setting
Leyser, Zeiger, and Romi (2011) studied the influence of teacher education, experience with children with disabilities, and training in inclusive education, on the self-efficacy (general teaching efficacy, efficacy of socialization, and for teaching low achievers) of general and special education teachers. The sample population included 992 teacher education majors enrolled in 11 different teacher education colleges in Israel. The authors found that the years in college did impact self-efficacy in the social domain. In all four factors of self-efficacy, special education majors reported higher self-efficacy than general education teachers. Teacher candidates who reported having some previous experience with children reported slightly significantly higher efficacy of socialization. Lastly, training in inclusion did promote higher levels of self-efficacy. Based upon this, preservice coursework of both special and general educators does affect the perceived self-efficacy for teaching students with disabilities in the inclusion setting.
Teaching Students with Autism and Coping
Ruble, Usher, and McGrew (2011) surveyed 35 special education teachers who teach students with autism. The surveys completed represented the following three areas of self-efficacy: sense of mastery, social persuasion, and physiological/affective state. The authors found no impact of years of teaching experience on self-efficacy ratings. Secondly, the authors found that social persuasions from administrators had no impact on self-efficacy ratings. The authors provide the possible explanation that teachers of students with autism consult more consistently with autism specialists and not their administrators. Lastly, teachers who reported higher levels of confidence reported lower levels of burnout. Burnout was only significant with the classroom management subscale. However, due to the design of this study, the authors are unable to conclude if the significance is derived from poor classroom management skills or teachers’ lack of belief in their in their management skills. Overall, the authors provide the implication that the inclusion of autism coursework in teacher preparation could assist in raising the self-efficacy of teachers of students with autism.
Classroom Structure and Teacher Efficacy
Using a sample size of 774 general and special educators, Shippen et al. (2011) investigated the impact of classroom structure on the efficacy reported at the secondary and elementary grade levels. Participants completed two questionnaires (Bender Classsroom Structure Questionnaire and Teacher Efficacy Scale). Overall, this study demonstrated that special educators are more effective at individualizing instruction for students with disabilities, than general education teachers do. Since the findings of this study demonstrate a difference in the instructional practices between special education teachers and general education teachers when teaching students with disabilities, the authors provide the implication that general education preservice coursework provide additional content related to teaching students with disabilities to enhance teacher confidence with regards to teaching students with disabilities. Also, the authors emphasize the need for continual professional development regarding co-teaching in the inclusion setting.
Autism, Treatment Orientation, and Self-Efficacy
Siu and Ho (2010) investigated the impact of treatment orientation on the self-efficacy of teachers of students with autism. The two primary treatment orientations when serving students with autism are Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and Treatment and Education of Autistic and Communication-related Handicapped Children (TEACCH). Teachers adhering to one of these two orientations were compared with a group of teachers who do not prescribe to a specific treatment orientation. Overall, the researchers found that by teaching according to a specific treatment orientation yields an increased sense of personal teaching efficacy when working with students with autism. Also, teachers who practice ABA demonstrate a high sense of personal teaching efficacy. In addition to further study, the authors provide the implication that continuous training and development should be provided for professionals who work with a specialized population of students, such as students with autism, in order to enhance self-efficacy and lessen teacher burnout.
Collective Efficacy, Teacher Self-Efficacy, & Job Satisfaction
Viel-Ruma, Houchins, Jolivette, and Benson (2010) evaluated the relationship between collective efficacy, teacher self-efficacy, and job satisfaction. Although the authors also sought to seek a relationship between the variables of collective efficacy, teacher self-efficacy, and job satisfaction, and various demographical variables (i.e. licensure status, grade level), there was no significant relationship evidenced. From the information gathered from 70 special education teachers, the authors concluded that relationships do exist between teacher efficacy and job satisfaction and teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy. The authors provide the implication that the increased provision of professional development opportunities for special education teachers could increase self-efficacy, and in turn, increase job satisfaction. Also, school improvements in curriculum, discipline, and community-status could increase collective efficacy, which could improve teacher self-efficacy.
References
Bruder, M.B., Dunst, C.J., & Mogro-Wilson, C. (2011). Confidence and competence appraisals
of early intervention and preschool special education practitioners. International Journal
of Early Childhood Special Education, 3(1), 13-37.
Busby, R., Ingram, R., Bowron, R., Oliver, J., & Lyons, B. (2012). Teaching elementary children
with autism: Addressing teacher challenges and preparation needs. Rural Educator,
33(2), 27-35.
Carlson, E., Lee, H., & Schroll, K. (2004). Identifying attributes of high quality special education
teachers. Teacher Education and Special Education, 27(4), 350-359.
Egyed, C.J., & Short, R.J. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy, burnout, experience, and decision to
refer a disruptive student. School Psychology International, 27(4), 462-474.
doi: 10.1177/0143034306070432
Gebbie, D.H., Ceglowski, D., Taylor, L.K., & Miels, J. (2012). The role of teacher efficacy in
strengthening classroom support for preschool children with disabilities who exhibit
challenging behaviors. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(1), 35-46.
doi:10.1007/s10643-011-0486-5