A Correlational Study of Active Learning

A Correlational Study of Active Learning,

Academic Proficiency and Completion Rates of African American Students

Enrolled in Developmental Mathematics Courses

A dissertation submitted

Hope E. Essien

Benedictine University

in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education

Higher Education and Organizational Change

This dissertation has been accepted for the faculty

of Benedictine University

M.Vali Siadat Ph.D., D.A. ______

Dissertation Committee DirectorDate

Sunil Chand, Ph.D. ______

Dissertation Committee ChairDate

JoHyun Kim, Ph.D.______

Dissertation Committee Reader Date

______Sunil Chand, Ph.D. ______

Program Director, FacultyDate

______Eileen Kolich, Ph.D.______

FacultyDate

______Ethel Ragland, Ed.D., M.N.,R.N. ______

Dean, College of Education and Health Services Date

I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Antoinette Ford Essien. Her contributions and advice continue to transform my life. Without the assistance, affection, and support of my friends and family, it would not have been possible to complete my dissertation. Additionally, to my parents, Norah and Edem Essien Ekanem, for instilling the importance of education in my life – thank you. I dedicate my dissertation also to those who hoped to see this day come true; however, they have transitioned from this life to the next. I especially dedicate this research and work to you, “Joyce father” – I love you. In the words of nineteenth century Quaker missionary Etienne de Grellet, “I shall pass this way but once; any good that I can do or any kindness I can show to any human being; let me do it now; let me not defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again.”

Finally, and in the words of Paul Tillich, “The courage to be is rooted in the God who appears when God has disappeared in the anxiety of doubt” (The Courage To Be, 1952).Lastly, this dissertation is dedicated to my sisters, Joyce and Gloria, and to my brother, Felix. To be sure, “I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me” (Philippians 4:13, New King James Version).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In writing these acknowledgments, I am constantly reminded of several occasions marked by wondering whether this day would ever come to pass. For this reason, I am eternally grateful to those who made this dissertation possible. I wish to acknowledge several people who contributed positively to my career and academic achievements. Without their support, this dream would not have materialized. In completing this dissertation process, I have been rewarded through the edification of my personal, professional, and educational growth. I also would like to thank the Creator for making all things possible through Him.

To my committee members, I extend my sincere gratitude. Thank you to Dr. Sunil Chand, my dissertation Chair, and Dr. Vali Siadat, my dissertation Director, for braving one of Chicago’s coldest winters (January 2013) to meet with me. Thank you both, also, for reviewing multiple drafts and for presenting suggestions, questions, and recommendations in the development of the various arguments presented in my dissertation. I additionally extend my gratitude to Dr. JoHyun Kim who served as my dissertation reader. Dr. Kim’s dedication, encouragement, and support helped make this dream a reality. To all who are aforementioned, you are and have been my role models.

I would like to thank Dr. Anthony Munroe, Dr. Antonio Gutierrez, Dr. Christopher Robinson-Easley, Dr. Lynette Stokes, Byron Javier, Byron Bell, Gené Stephens and Kimberly Hollingsworth for their assistance and support during my dissertation preparation and writing.

Finally, to my Cohort at Benedictine University, Hope Community College and the Oko-Ita community, thank you for your words of wisdom. I wish you all the best.

ABSTRACT

Nationally, according to Bahr (2010), one in four students (22%) were enrolled in developmental mathematics, whereas 46%of African American students were enrolled in developmental mathematics and earned credit in these courses. Only 54%of students enrolled in Fundamentals of Arithmetic and Intermediate Algebra at HCC (Hope Community College, a pseudonym) were successful in completing these developmental mathematics courses with a grade of “C” or better. To address these issues and explain alternative methods to help African American students become more successful at HCC and proficient in developmental mathematics, this research measures the effectiveness of active learning on the academic proficiency and completion rates of African American students enrolled in developmental mathematics at a two-year college.

Active learning is a method of teaching that promotes student-centered learning, which intends to raise the student’s motivational level and encourage thinking beyond the information and details provided during instruction (Brody, 2009; Boylan & Bonham, 2012; Bailey, Jeong, & Cho, 2010).Active learning also correlates with academic proficiency, success rate, persistence, and completion (Nash, 2005).However, the need to find alternate methods is supported by the fact that only 43% of freshmen at two-year colleges are ready to succeed in college-level mathematics courses (Li et al., 2013).

A quantitative method (Creswell, 2011) will be utilized to gather, investigate, and analyze data for this study.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Issue Statement

Theoretical Framework

Research Environment

Research Questions

Major Research Questions

Hypotheses

Significance of the Study

Definition of Terms

Study Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Study Assumptions

Study Limitations

Delimitation

Chapter One: Summary

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Developmental Mathematics

Why Developmental Mathematics Courses at Community Colleges

Distinctiveness of Developmental Mathematics Students

Learning Theories

Constructivist Learning Theory

Experiential Learning Theory

Active Learning in Classroom

Benefits of Active Learning to Students

Correlation of Active Learning and Performance in Mathematics

Chapter Two: Summary

CHAPTER 3: METHOD AND DESIGN

Population and sample of the study

Course and student distribution

Data Collection Procedures

Data Analysis and Research Approach

Privacy and Confidentiality

Additional Required Information

Declaration of Conflicting Interest

Benefit of the Project

NIH/CITI

Chapter Three: Summary

Research Questions

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS

Demographic Background

Research Question One

Research Question Two

Chapter Four: Summary

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

Summary of Study

Discussion of Research Question One

Discussion of Research Question Two

Future Research and Recommendations

REFERENCES

Appendix A: Syllabus for Developmental Mathematics Course

Appendix B: Active Learning Project

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Chapter one of this investigation presents the following: (1)issue statement; (2) purpose of the study; (3) research environment to be studied; (4) research questions; and (5) explanation of the overarching significance of this research to the developmental learning ofAfrican Americans.

Issue Statement

A panel of experts assembled by the United States Department of Education (2008) determined that students have difficulties with fractions, simple interest, and calculations needed for everyday living. Similarly, Brown and Quinn (2007) have in their research examined the relationship between fraction proficiency and success in algebra, including developmental mathematics. The United States Department of Education’s (2008) statistics additionally revealed that 78% of students were not able to calculate the interest paid on a loan; 71% were not able compute gas mileage of a car per distance travelled on a trip; and 58%wereincapable of calculating a10% gratuity on a lunch bill. About 75% of students enrolled at two-year colleges are mandated to take at least one or more developmental mathematics courses (Boylan & Bonham, 2012). Furthermore, student inadequacy in developmental mathematics courses stems from elementary education and continues through high school before participants are even enrolled in community colleges (Venezia & Perry, 2007; Sierpinska, Bobos, & Knipping, 2008).

In a report presented to the Department of Education, Noel-Levitz (2006) mentioned that developmental mathematics is a difficult course to pass. According to Spradlin (2009), students’ failure or success in mathematics courses may determine whether they complete their education or gain meaningful careers.

Research conducted by the National Center for Postsecondary Research (NCPR, 2010) indicates that traditional teaching approaches have not demonstrated proficiency in developmental mathematics. Consequently,mathematics instructors are supplementing traditional approaches with teaching techniques that emphasize active learning, concepts and real life application (Spradlin, 2009). As part of President Barack Obama’s challenge to the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) to educate five million students by 2020, AACC (2013) supports the emergence of active learning, which includes discovery and experiential exploration to enhance student engagement in problemsolving and learning (Rosenshine, 2012).

Although constructivists grapple with the challenges of implementing and connecting this theory of instruction to teaching and learning practices, the constructivists’ theory has the ability to create an educational experience that requires students to be active participants in learning process (Gordon, 2009). Despite difficulties confronting the constructivists’ approach incorporating a balance of active learning and experiential instructional method, developmental mathematics instructors should advocate a change in how students learn, embrace active learning, and work with their students toward building, interpreting, and discovering their own knowledge (Hoang & Caverly, 2013).

Since active learning or student-centered instruction entails knowledge discovery, mathematics students should take ownership and responsibility for their edification by coming to class prepared and ready to be engaged in group projects (Fister and McCarthy, 2008). To facilitate the process of active learning, Hoang and Caverly (2013) suggest that developmental mathematics instructors can assign instructional activities in developmental mathematics via DropBox, Google Drive, and YouTube. Similarly, Khan Academy utilizes interactive DVD exercises that give students active learning or practical experiences that simplify complex developmental mathematics problems to real life applications, thereby making mathematics come alive. (Lambert, 2012; Johnson, Flagg, & Dremsa, 2010).

In the study conducted by Daniel Jacoby (2006), the author argued that active learning may not be properly implemented in community colleges due to the profound dependence by community colleges on adjunct faculty. Jacoby (2006) further argued that adjunct faculty members employed in community colleges adversely affect students’ educational proficiency since they lack the needed equipment and materials necessary to support active learning approaches. Additionally, Jacoby (2006) contended that over-reliance on adjunct faculty may challenge successful student integration. To paraphrase the author, the graduation rate of a two-year college is inversely proportional to the number of adjunct faculty employed (Jacoby, 2006).

Jacoby’s research also determined that part-time faculty members are “relatively unavailable” and “use less challenging instructional methods” (Jacoby, 2006, p.1083). In essence, adjunct faculty pedagogical perceptions could adversely impact active learning implementation (Michael, 2007). Finally, Jacoby maintainedthat adjunct faculty members use active pedagogical techniques less frequently, place less emphasis on educating a well-rounded scholar, include diversity in classroom instruction less frequently, and spend inadequate time preparing for class (Jacoby, 2006). Additionally, professional development activity would be effective in improving instructional skills, knowledge and teaching practice, thereby promoting communication among instructors (Garet et al., 2001).

To meet the challenges of developing successful student outcomes in developmental mathematics, educational researchers have determined that active learning methods of teaching are efficient and can improve the educational performance of students more than the traditional, instructor-centered style of teaching (Starke, 2012; Barkley, Cross, & Major, 2005). Rabin & Nutter-Upham (2010) additionally contended that implementation of active learning in and out of the classroom with student-centered learning competencies improves student learning and can assist students in developing problem-solving skills (Freeman et al., 2007; Visher, Butcher, & Cerna, 2010). Further, research indicatedthat the use of instructor-centered lectures does not permit students to be enthusiastically engaged in the teaching and learning process (Killian & Dye, 2009; Sternberg, 2003).

Instructor-centered learning—or the “chalk and talk”—places students in a passive role that restricts the participants’ classroom activities to information memorization (Loch et al., 2011; Dembele & Miaro II, 2003).Kamii, Rummelsberg and Kari (2005) observed that by implementing active learning in the classroom, students’ thinking abilities are enhanced, thereby improving high school and elementary students’ scores in mathematics.Research advocated by Shirvani (2006) promotes educational standards such as students’ engagement in classroom, problem solving initiation, and encouragement of communication in the classroom, as well as moving toward mathematical understanding instead of memorization of materials covered in class.Research conducted by Rumberger (2004) and Gates Foundation (2006) explained that inadequate student engagement is a predictive factor of student persistence and lack of completion rate. Research also revealedthat engaged students gain and retain more knowledge and benefit more from active learning than do students who are not engaged (Freeman et al., 2007; Voke, 2002; Hancock & Betts, 2002).

Despite research indicating the ways in which active learning can have a constructive effect on student learning, there waslittle evidence in the literature for the inclusion of active learning in a curriculum for African American students enrolled in developmental mathematics courses at the community college level. The paucity of research on the use of active learning approach and its effectiveness is a profound gap in efforts to support and encourage students’ active learning method (Waltz, Jenkins Han, 2014).

Consequently, the purpose of this study wasto investigate whether there is any correlation between active learning methods of instructionand the academic proficiency and completion rates of African American students in developmental mathematics courses in post-secondary institutions and, specifically, in a community college setting.

Theoretical Framework

Today’s students are learning in a more technologically advanced environment (Hsu, 2008). Since students live in a fast-paced, ever-changing environment, traditional methods of instruction are inadequate to serve their educational needs (Shults, 2008; Loch et al., 2011).The traditional teaching method of past generations required participants to be non-engaged receivers of instruction. The traditional teaching approach has produced a high student attrition rate in the classroom and low passing rate (Spradlin, 2009). Actively generating information is a vital element for improving student learning objectives (GiersKreiner, 2009). The finding by Giersand Kreiner(2009) indicated that students demonstrated higher academic performance and better retention of information presented in the classroom when active learning was incorporated into student learning approaches. The traditional delivery approach known as the passive learning method is often referred to as “chalk and talk,” i.e., as the instructor talks, the student listens and writes (Friesen, 2011). In the “chalk and talk” instructional delivery, the instructor is seen as the only source of authority of information (Ali, 2011).On the other hand, Trinter, Moon, and Brighton (2014) contend thatwhen instructors teach with active learning methods, the result is that students constantly participate in class; and that these techniques contribute to mathematical student successes (Trinter, Moon, & Brighton, 2014).

In traditional methods of teaching, the instructor displays more procedural approaches that are stressed through a kind of “sage on stage” method(White-Clark et al,2008). This direct instructional method is also characterized as teacher-centered instruction. Teacher-centered instruction requires the instructor to present the materials and guide the practice while the student accepts the materials and instructional correction modeled by the teacher (Killian & Dye, 2009; Kinney & Robertson, 2003). Furthermore, in the traditional approach, teacher-centered methods of instruction, decisions in the classroom are made by the teacher who determines the content and context of materials covered (Gningue et al., 2013). In the teacher-centered method, the content of materials to be presented is directly transmitted from the instructor to students (White-Clark, DiCarlo, and Gilchriest, 2008). Gningue et al. (2013) also claim that knowledge is passively transmitted when students receive information from an omniscient expert or instructor.Additionally, Brown (2003) contended that it is the responsibility of the instructor to do all the thinking, while the students rehearse and regurgitate covered materials.

In contrast to the traditional lecture style of teaching, active learning is team-based and problem-based, containing simulated and cooperative learning methodologies. In an activelearning model, the instructor is viewed as a facilitator of knowledge rather than the originator and keeper of knowledge(Orey, 2010).In active learning or students-centered learning, emphasis is placed on students’ ability to discover and learn information. The instructors are viewed as a “guide on the side” that facilitatesstudents’ understanding of content and construction of meanings (White-Clark et al., 2008).

A benefit of active learning is that “students actually learn math by doing math rather than spending time listening to someone talk about doing math” (Boylanet al., 2012, p.16). It is also suggested that active learning improves student learning engagement and performance in examinations (Yoder and Hochevar, 2005). Active learning is also advantageous for the following reasons:

(1) students are not passive listeners;

(2) students are engaged in reading, writing, problem solving, and discussions;

(3) student motivation is increased;

(4) students receive instant feedback; and

(5) students are engaged in critical thinking, analysis, evaluation, and synthesis.

(Michel, Cater, & Varela, 2009)

In this study active learning is the independent variable, and the academic proficiency and completion rate of African American students enrolled in a developmental mathematics course are dependent variables. Within the framework of this study, students are deemed proficient in the developmental mathematics course when they attain at least a letter grade of ‘C’ or better using quantitative assessment tasks stipulated on the course syllabus.

Research Environment

The sitefor this study wasan urban two-year college located in a large municipal area of the Midwest of the United States. The college is made up of a diverse student population. The ethnic breakdown of the students is 70%African American, plusa variety of other ethnic groups. Many students who arrive at a two-year community college are unprepared to complete successfully a degree or certificate program of study in the time frame prescribed by Title IV permission (Bailey, 2008). In addition, many students come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and have limited exposure to postsecondary educational experiences (White House, 2014). National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2003) indicates that 50% of students enrolled in community colleges depart at the end of the first two semesters. From Fall 2009 to Fall 2010, 20% of all students enrolled at Hope Community College (HCC) were proficient in intermediate algebra. HCC registered over 5500 students and 500 of those students were registered in intermediate algebra. From HCC internal assessment documents, data indicateda high population percentage of African American students in intermediate algebra. HCC college administration made an effort to improve students’ success by proposing an initiative to implement three intervention (active learning) classes and three control group (non-active learning) classes of intermediate algebra from Fall 2010 to Fall 2013 to investigate the effect of active learning. In Fall 2010, the implementation of active learning in a developmental mathematics course, intermediatealgebra, was designed to provide students with additional support to be proficient in completing intermediate algebra.