Social Indicators Research
Electronic supplementary material to:
What Aspects of Society Matter for the Quality of Life of a Minority? Global Evidence from the New Gay Happiness Index
1 Construction of the Gay Happiness Index (Source: Lemke et al. 2015)
The index consists of three parts: Public opinion (how the respondents think others perceive of them), Public behavior (how the respondents have been treated) and Life satisfaction (how satisfied the respondents are with their lives).
Public opinion was built by adding up the percentages of respondents per country who
1. rate their country’s laws, its government and governmental decisions more gay-friendly than antigay,
2. rate the people in their country on average more gay-friendly than anti-gay,
3. rate their work/school/university more gay-friendly than anti-gay,
4. would show up at a public event with an obviously gay man,
5. would hold hands with another man in public,
6. would kiss another man in public,
7. would approach a man in public for a date or sex,
8. rate their environment more gay-friendly than anti-gay based on the “Perception of Stigma Scale”
9. estimate on how many people in their countries would agree to the sentence “Homosexuality should be accepted by society”.
To rescale it to a 0 to 100 range, this sum was divided by 9, as it had a potential maximum of 900 (if the respective 9 options were each chosen by all 100 % in that country) and a minimum of 0 (if the underlying options were each chosen by 0 % of participants in that country).
Public behavior was built by adding up the percentages of respondents per country who
1. have no experience of discrimination whatsoever in family,
2. have no experience of discrimination whatsoever at work/education,
3. have no experience of discrimination whatsoever concerning healthcare,
4. have no experience of verbal insults,
5. have no experience of verbal threats,
6. have no experience of minor physical assaults,
7. have no experience of major physical assaults,
8. who never hear upsetting statements at work,
9. who never hear upsetting statements in school/university,
10. who never hear upsetting statements among friends,
11. who never hear upsetting statements in public spaces.
To rescale it to a 0 to 100 range, this sum was divided by 11, as it had a potential maximum of 1100 (if the respective 11 options were each chosen by all 100 % in that country) and a minimum of 0 (if the underlying options were each chosen by 0 % of participants in that country).
Life satisfaction was built by adding up the percentages of respondents per country who
1. have high life satisfaction based on the “Satisfaction with Life Scale”,
2. have a high self-acceptance based on the “Internalized Homonegativity Scale”,
3. have never actually moved to another place and do not consider moving because of sexual orientation,
4. have never emigrated to another country and do not consider emigrating because of sexual orientation,
5. have never changed job/school/university because of sexual orientation.
To rescale it to a 0 to 100 range, this sum was divided by 5, as it had a potential maximum of 500 (if the respective 5 options were each chosen by all 100 % in that country) and a minimum of 0 (if the underlying options were each chosen by 0 % of participants in that country).
2 Separating the ILGA Rights Index into Three Sub-Indices
In the Online Appendix-Table 3 below, we separate the ILGA rights index into three sub-indices, following the description in the ILGA (2015) report: persecution, protection and recognition. However, the report does not exactly describe how to reach the overall index or the three sub-indices. We therefore here document how we code the three components.
ILGA – persecution first adds up country positions on three factors: whether there isa death sentence for male homosexual behavior, whether male same-sex activity is illegal and whether there are propaganda laws that ban public arguments in favor of male same-sex activity. A country that has any of these laws in place gets -1 for each law, and the sum is then divided by three to yield the sub-index value. Countries without any such legislation receive a score of +1.
ILGA – protection is composed of country positions on four factors: whether there is legislation against discriminating people in employment decisions based on the basis of sexual orientation, whether there is legislation in general against discrimination based on sexual orientation, whether legislation explicitly bans hate crimes and whether it bans incitement to hatred based on sexual orientation. For each factor, we add 1 to thissub-index and take the average, such that countries including all four types of legislation receive a score of +1.
Finally, ILGA – recognition is composed of three factors: whether the age of consent is the same for same-sex activity as for heterosexual activity, whether same-sex marriages or civil unions are allowed on an equal basis as those of heterosexual couples and whether adoption by same-sex couples is legal.A country gets -1 if they have differing ages of consent, another -1 if they do not have unions or marriage and another -1 if they do not allow adoption. They get +1 if the age of consent is the same, another +1 if gay people can enter unions or marry and another +1 if same-sex couples can adopt. A country in which the legal status is unclear or varies across federal units or regions receives a score of 0. The final sub-index value is the average of the scores.
3 Online Appendix-Tables
Online Appendix-Table 1 The Gay Happiness Index, separable elements
Country / Favorable opinion / Absence of discrimination / Absence of threats / Absence of bad behavior / Life satisfaction / Desire not to moveAlbania (66) / 1.42 / 4.86 / 5.77 / 4.84 / 2.86 / 6.06
Algeria (33) / 0.77 / 4.44 / 4.61 / 5.97 / 2.58 / 6.03
Argentina (293) / 7.08 / 8.55 / 8.34 / 7.58 / 8.71 / 9.84
Armenia (44) / 0.34 / 4.74 / 5.37 / 4.44 / 3.48 / 4.54
Australia (602) / 7.28 / 7.79 / 6.03 / 8.55 / 8.61 / 7.78
Austria (2509) / 7.03 / 7.72 / 7.76 / 7.98 / 8.55 / 8.66
Azerbaijan (41) / 1.11 / 4.22 / 5.91 / 5.41 / 3.75 / 6.46
Bangladesh (48) / 1.06 / 1.52 / 4.09 / 4.87 / 3.41 / 6.10
Belarus (117) / 1.30 / 7.48 / 5.46 / 6.28 / 5.13 / 6.75
Belgium (2755) / 7.15 / 8.05 / 7.24 / 8.56 / 8.43 / 9.47
Benin (52) / 3.16 / 2.67 / 6.58 / 5.99 / 5.24 / 4.35
Bolivia (31) / 3.68 / 7.26 / 7.21 / 4.84 / 7.38 / 8.30
Bosnia (419) / 0.80 / 4.80 / 5.81 / 5.28 / 3.70 / 6.29
Brazil (673) / 5.04 / 5.87 / 5.82 / 6.91 / 7.56 / 7.48
Bulgaria (675) / 2.56 / 7.00 / 6.10 / 6.11 / 5.67 / 6.15
Burundi (22) / 0.36 / 2.81 / 3.83 / 5.88 / 3.59 / 3.76
Cambodia (56) / 5.35 / 7.08 / 7.35 / 7.51 / 8.15 / 6.98
Cameroon (186) / 0.75 / 2.65 / 1.87 / 3.82 / 2.65 / 3.52
Canada (691) / 8.72 / 7.89 / 7.16 / 9.52 / 9.36 / 7.92
Chile (142) / 5.11 / 6.97 / 6.47 / 6.45 / 7.70 / 7.46
Colombia (407) / 4.64 / 7.05 / 7.29 / 5.42 / 7.79 / 7.91
Costa Rica (70) / 5.32 / 7.46 / 8.10 / 5.72 / 8.71 / 9.55
Côte d'Ivoire (116) / 1.95 / 5.52 / 4.71 / 5.49 / 3.98 / 5.36
Croatia (560) / 2.94 / 6.93 / 6.11 / 6.35 / 5.62 / 6.59
Cyprus (351) / 2.75 / 5.89 / 7.04 / 5.78 / 5.03 / 6.50
Czech Republic (545) / 6.86 / 10.00 / 8.08 / 8.70 / 8.73 / 7.44
Denmark (469) / 8.79 / 9.50 / 7.58 / 9.55 / 10.00 / 8.29
Dominican Republic (61) / 2.93 / 4.54 / 4.42 / 4.97 / 5.40 / 5.25
Ecuador (136) / 4.57 / 6.85 / 7.52 / 5.25 / 6.96 / 7.11
Egypt (180) / 0.52 / 3.40 / 5.05 / 3.54 / 3.38 / 5.41
El Salvador (23) / 2.46 / 4.93 / 8.45 / 4.23 / 7.27 / 6.58
Estonia (286) / 3.85 / 8.00 / 6.53 / 7.25 / 7.11 / 8.04
Ethiopia (31) / 0.02 / 2.74 / 3.47 / 2.40 / 3.60 / 0.61
Finland (664) / 7.47 / 8.54 / 6.60 / 9.18 / 9.52 / 7.87
France (7047) / 6.57 / 7.41 / 7.24 / 8.47 / 7.77 / 9.14
Georgia (78) / 1.38 / 5.02 / 6.22 / 4.52 / 4.30 / 6.21
Germany (29325) / 7.68 / 8.18 / 7.69 / 8.29 / 8.66 / 9.21
Ghana (85) / 1.23 / 3.06 / 2.76 / 4.38 / 4.22 / 2.36
Greece (2861) / 3.20 / 6.60 / 7.28 / 6.47 / 5.95 / 7.69
Guatemala (27) / 2.58 / 6.66 / 7.19 / 4.61 / 6.57 / 5.67
Honduras (23) / 2.88 / 3.86 / 4.33 / 3.69 / 5.69 / 6.15
Hungary (2112) / 3.16 / 7.45 / 8.58 / 6.21 / 5.39 / 7.89
Iceland (123) / 10.00 / 9.17 / 7.45 / 10.00 / 9.70 / 8.17
India (7183) / 2.18 / 4.85 / 6.64 / 4.76 / 4.55 / 7.02
Indonesia (867) / 2.35 / 6.00 / 8.40 / 6.73 / 5.55 / 5.14
Ireland (415) / 6.75 / 8.17 / 6.44 / 8.52 / 7.98 / 6.70
Israel (337) / 7.86 / 8.64 / 8.64 / 9.20 / 8.81 / 8.54
Italy (9887) / 3.98 / 8.73 / 8.27 / 6.60 / 6.44 / 8.55
Japan (194) / 4.11 / 6.90 / 9.61 / 7.64 / 6.26 / 7.91
Jordan (45) / 1.66 / 4.34 / 5.44 / 5.32 / 3.95 / 5.99
Kazakhstan (81) / 0.55 / 4.66 / 3.32 / 3.57 / 5.42 / 4.63
Kenya (111) / 1.44 / 3.82 / 4.89 / 3.71 / 4.20 / 5.23
Kuwait (46) / 2.38 / 4.88 / 8.04 / 6.62 / 6.54 / 6.49
Kyrgyzstan (20) / 0.45 / 2.88 / 0.00 / 3.69 / 2.85 / 0.74
Latvia (289) / 2.03 / 7.00 / 5.93 / 6.31 / 5.65 / 7.52
Lebanon (132) / 1.55 / 4.08 / 5.84 / 4.85 / 4.70 / 5.65
Lithuania (242) / 2.45 / 6.23 / 5.75 / 6.04 / 5.76 / 7.81
Luxembourg (283) / 7.72 / 8.28 / 9.09 / 8.46 / 9.16 / 9.88
Macedonia (246) / 1.14 / 4.16 / 6.37 / 5.26 / 4.01 / 4.74
Madagascar (48) / 2.91 / 5.91 / 7.78 / 6.56 / 6.18 / 7.27
Malaysia (1421) / 2.05 / 5.39 / 7.70 / 5.68 / 5.43 / 6.41
Mali (21) / 0.57 / 3.56 / 6.64 / 5.42 / 0.00 / 6.76
Malta (198) / 6.23 / 8.31 / 7.88 / 7.89 / 7.98 / 7.94
Mauritius (187) / 2.22 / 6.65 / 7.18 / 5.28 / 4.73 / 6.85
Mexico (575) / 5.85 / 6.96 / 6.22 / 5.77 / 8.60 / 8.62
Moldova (101) / 1.03 / 5.39 / 6.41 / 6.03 / 4.33 / 5.69
Montenegro (118) / 1.13 / 6.29 / 6.72 / 5.98 / 4.04 / 4.20
Morocco (738) / 0.90 / 4.10 / 4.79 / 5.77 / 3.72 / 5.02
Namibia (31) / 3.49 / 6.77 / 4.65 / 4.99 / 7.02 / 4.71
Nepal (56) / 2.98 / 6.54 / 8.62 / 5.61 / 4.87 / 6.16
Netherlands (3012) / 7.66 / 9.29 / 7.23 / 9.12 / 9.62 / 9.22
New Zealand (168) / 8.09 / 8.34 / 7.22 / 8.94 / 9.10 / 8.44
Nicaragua (51) / 3.73 / 5.34 / 5.11 / 3.18 / 5.86 / 5.96
Nigeria (92) / 0.30 / 3.75 / 2.55 / 3.16 / 3.63 / 4.12
Norway (520) / 8.88 / 9.55 / 8.02 / 9.82 / 9.86 / 8.61
Pakistan (47) / 1.72 / 2.86 / 5.97 / 3.20 / 3.75 / 5.10
Panama (34) / 3.22 / 5.21 / 7.35 / 4.40 / 7.22 / 7.13
Peru (317) / 3.65 / 6.31 / 6.63 / 4.46 / 6.38 / 7.51
Philippines (4947) / 5.27 / 7.51 / 5.94 / 6.06 / 6.73 / 7.35
Poland (1988) / 3.10 / 8.60 / 6.40 / 6.77 / 6.02 / 7.40
Portugal (504) / 5.49 / 6.21 / 7.15 / 8.16 / 7.15 / 8.24
Qatar (47) / 1.15 / 6.44 / 7.66 / 6.06 / 6.63 / 6.84
Romania (2482) / 1.89 / 7.26 / 7.18 / 6.23 / 5.04 / 7.46
Russia (1312) / 1.36 / 6.40 / 5.25 / 6.00 / 5.66 / 5.73
Saudi Arabia (201) / 0.67 / 4.51 / 6.21 / 5.53 / 4.26 / 5.41
Senegal (112) / 0.62 / 3.78 / 4.06 / 6.85 / 3.66 / 3.81
Serbia (1732) / 1.49 / 6.03 / 5.67 / 6.45 / 4.17 / 5.90
Singapore (534) / 2.86 / 5.39 / 7.81 / 6.25 / 5.89 / 6.30
Slovakia (400) / 3.24 / 8.41 / 7.48 / 6.43 / 7.10 / 6.99
Slovenia (396) / 4.45 / 7.99 / 7.46 / 7.75 / 6.89 / 7.55
South Africa (252) / 6.89 / 8.02 / 6.86 / 7.74 / 8.32 / 8.61
South Korea (83) / 2.50 / 6.32 / 9.34 / 6.40 / 6.48 / 7.05
Spain (3735) / 7.53 / 8.78 / 7.61 / 7.89 / 8.52 / 8.87
Sri Lanka (180) / 1.55 / 4.44 / 5.91 / 5.61 / 5.67 / 5.88
Sweden (619) / 8.64 / 8.87 / 7.16 / 9.37 / 9.83 / 7.40
Switzerland (3158) / 7.64 / 8.25 / 8.37 / 8.73 / 9.17 / 9.17
Taiwan (172) / 5.64 / 6.93 / 10.00 / 7.49 / 7.10 / 6.21
Tanzania (41) / 1.03 / 2.81 / 4.76 / 4.33 / 4.14 / 5.60
Thailand (1549) / 7.55 / 9.17 / 8.70 / 8.23 / 8.86 / 8.14
Tunisia (269) / 1.37 / 5.27 / 5.19 / 5.86 / 3.49 / 5.54
Turkey (1767) / 2.10 / 2.65 / 6.29 / 6.07 / 4.49 / 7.19
Uganda (25) / 0.00 / 1.34 / 1.29 / 0.00 / 3.91 / 0.77
Ukraine (359) / 1.62 / 6.79 / 5.59 / 5.83 / 5.51 / 6.01
United Kingdom (1520) / 7.32 / 7.47 / 6.24 / 8.29 / 8.21 / 6.45
Uruguay (53) / 7.50 / 8.86 / 9.74 / 8.97 / 9.73 / 9.70
United States (1236) / 7.00 / 6.71 / 6.00 / 8.30 / 8.46 / 7.03
Uzbekistan (20) / 0.05 / 4.60 / 5.81 / 5.63 / 2.83 / 5.63
Venezuela (215) / 4.09 / 6.65 / 6.65 / 5.23 / 7.75 / 7.97
Vietnam (218) / 4.58 / 6.31 / 8.41 / 6.37 / 5.99 / 5.40
Zimbabwe (22) / 0.44 / 5.59 / 2.46 / 4.27 / 4.70 / 5.60
The full index consists of the four listed subindices and the two outcome indices; regarding how to interpret the measures (on a 0–10 scale), see details about the construction of the index below. The countries in italics have fewer than 100 respondents; the number of respondents is reported in parentheses in the left-hand column.
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Online Appendix-Table 2 Descriptive statistics, additional variables
Mean / Std. deviation / Minimum / Maximum / ObservationsILGA – persecution / .12 / .32 / -.67 / .33 / 110
ILGA – protection / .24 / .31 / 0 / 1 / 110
ILGA – recognition / .05 / .48 / -.67 / 1 / 110
Online Appendix-Table 3 Determinants of the quality of life of gay men, seemingly unrelated regressions, weighted estimates, usingthree ILGA rights sub-indices
Measure / (1)Favorable opinion / (2)
Absence of discrimination / (3)
Absence of threats / (4)
Absence of bad behavior / (5)
Life satisfaction / (6)
Desire not to move
Log GDP per capita / .26
(.21) / .57**
(.23) / .74***
(.25) / .17
(.19) / .34**
(.14) / .23
(.19)
Government expenditures / -.07***
(.03) / -.03
(.03) / .00
(.03) / -.05**
(.03) / .01
(.02) / -.00
(.02)
Democracy / .15
(.34) / .29
(.38) / .93**
(.40) / .35
(.31) / -.28
(.23) / .44
(.31)
Rule of law / -.03
(.22) / -.37
(.25) / -.00
(.01) / .13
(.20) / .05
(.15) / -.28
(.20)
ILGA persecution / 1.83***
(.49) / 1.36**
(.57) / 2.26***
(.59) / 1.58***
(.46) / -.51
(.36) / .01
(.50)
ILGA protection / .59
(.42) / 1.05**
(.48) / 1.17**
(.50) / .59
(.39) / -.09
(.29) / .49
(.39)
ILGA recognition / 1.53***
(.34) / .65*
(.38) / -.12
(.39) / .82***
(.31) / -.26
(.25) / .21
(.34)
Urban population / .00
(.01) / .01
(.01) / -.00
(.01) / .01*
(.01) / -.00
(.01) / -.00
(.01)
Post-communist / -2.58***
(.38) / -.28
(.43) / -.74
(.45) / -.99
(.35) / .43
(.31) / -.52
(.43)
Globalization flows / .02**
(.01) / .02***
(.01) / .00
(.01) / .00
(.01) / .00
(.00) / .00
(.01)
Social trust / -.00
(.01) / .01
(.01) / -.01
(.01) / .01
(.01) / .01
(.01) / -.03**
(.01)
Religiosity / -.48
(.78) / .11
(.89) / .33
(.93) / .17
(.73) / .64
(.51) / -.75
(.72)
Orthodox / -.01***
(.01) / -.01**
(.01) / -.01
(.01) / -.01***
(.00) / -.00
(.00) / -.01
(.01)
Catholic / -.01*
(.00) / -.01**
(.01) / -.02**
(.01) / -.02***
(.00) / -.00
(.00) / -.00
(.00)
Protestant / .01*
(.01) / -.01
(.01) / -.01*
(.01) / -.01
(.01) / -.00
(.00) / -.00
(.01)
Muslim / -.01*
(.01) / -.02***
(.01) / -.01
(.01) / -.01
(.00) / -.01***
(.00) / -.00
(.00)
Favorable opinion / .63***
(.08) / .06
(.11)
Absence of discrimination / .19**
(.08) / .21**
(.10)
Absence of threats / -.03
(.06) / .34***
(.08)
Absence of bad behavior / -.00
(.09) / .18
(.13)
Regional fixed effects / Yes / Yes / Yes / Yes / Yes / Yes
Observations / 108 / 108 / 108 / 108 / 108 / 108
R squared / .872 / .720 / .571 / .776 / .907 / .796
Chi squared / 737.95 / 277.75 / 143.49 / 342.08 / 1049.60 / 420.36
Standard errors in parentheses. *** (**) [*] denote significance at p<.01 (p<.05) [p<.10]. The analytic weights applied are the logarithm to the number of respondents in each country sample as a ratio to overall population size.
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Online Appendix-Table 4 Determinants of the quality of life of gay men, seemingly unrelated regressions, unweighted estimates
Measure / (1)Favorable opinion / (2)
Absence of discrimination / (3)
Absence of threats / (4)
Absence of bad behavior / (5)
Life satisfaction / (6)
Desire not to move
Log GDP per capita / .151
(.203) / .529**
(.222) / .664***
(.256) / .095
(.189) / .354***
(.138) / .227
(.193)
Government expenditures / -.067***
(.025) / -.021
(.027) / .001
(.032) / -.049**
(.023) / .009
(.017) / -.001
(.024)
Democracy / .208
(.329) / .356
(.361) / 1.199***
(.415) / .445
(.306) / -.301
(.222) / .418
(.312)
Rule of law / .049
(.208) / -.336
(.228) / .094
(.262) / .161
(.193) / .069
(.139) / -.229
(.195)
ILGA rights / .579***
(.079) / .469***
(.087) / .277**
(.099) / .399***
(.073) / -.149**
(.064) / .118
(.089)
Urban population / -.004
(.009) / -.001
(.009) / -.007
(.011) / .009
(.008) / .000
(.006) / -.003
(.008)
Post-communist / -2.574***
(.376) / -.196
(.412) / -.549
(.473) / -.963***
(.349) / .419
(.304) / -.546
(.427)
Globalization flows / .021***
(.007) / .028***
(.007) / .007
(.009) / -009
(.006) / -.001
(.005) / .003
(.007)
Social trust / .010
(.012) / .015
(.013) / .000
(.015) / .019*
(.011) / .004
(.008) / -.027**
(.011)
Religiosity / -.787
(.775) / .086
(.848) / .372
(.975) / .021
(.720) / .677
(.507) / -.794
(.712)
Orthodox / -.009*
(.005) / -.009
(.006) / -.001
(.006) / -.011**
(.005) / -.002
(.003) / -.001
(.006)
Catholic / -.005
(.005) / -.009*
(.005) / -.014**
(.006) / -.014***
(.004) / -.003
(.003) / -.002
(.006)
Protestant / .009
(.006) / -.009
(.007) / -.017**
(.008) / -.012**
(.006) / -.000
(.004) / -.001
(.006)
Muslim / -.008*
(.005) / -.017***
(.005) / -.012*
(.006) / -.005
(.005) / -.009***
(.003) / .001
(.005)
Favorable opinion / .631***
(.079) / .047
(.112)
Absence of discrimination / .221***
(.074) / .198*
(.104)
Absence of threats / -.049
(.058) / .343***
(.081)
Absence of bad behavior / -.005
(.089) / .174
(.125)
Regional fixed effects / Yes / Yes / Yes / Yes / Yes / Yes
Observations / 108 / 108 / 108 / 108 / 108 / 108
R squared / 0.883 / 0.752 / 0.577 / 0.787 / 0.923 / 0.795
Chi squared / 814.69 / 327.46 / 147.40 / 397.75 / 1292.86 / 417.68
Standard errors in parentheses. *** (**) [*] denote significance at p<.01 (p<.05) [p<.10].
Online Appendix-Table 5 Determinants of the quality of life of gay men, seemingly unrelated regression, using the original parts of the GHI
Measure / (1)GHI public opinion / (2)
GHI public behavior / (3)
GHI life satisfaction
Log GDP per capita / .220
(1.786) / 2.534**
(1.082) / 2.175***
(.814)
Government expenditures / -.498**
(.221) / -.184
(.134) / -.018
(.099)
Democracy / .289
(2.898) / 3.959**
(1.755) / .848
(1.318)
Rule of law / 1.386
(1.829) / .092
(1.108) / -1.176
(.809)
ILGA rights / 5.057***
(.696) / 2.633***
(.421) / .092
(.384)
Urban population / -.017
(.077) / -.004
(.046) / -.049
(.033)
Post-communist / -21.674***
(3.308) / -4.501**
(2.004) / -2.186
(1.737)
Globalization flows / .165***
(.059) / .088**
(.036) / .042
(.028)
Social trust / .153
(.103) / .064
(.062) / -.073
(.046)
Religiosity / -6.508
(6.816) / .017
(4.129) / -2.907
(3.025)
Orthodox / -.069
(.045) / -.034
(.027) / -.037*
(.020)
Catholic / -.023
(.042) / -.076***
(.026) / -.013
(.019)
Protestant / .107*
(.055) / -.064*
(.033) / -.007
(.026)
Muslim / -.017
(.044) / -.055**
(.027) / -.033
(.019)
GHI opinion / .255***
(.049)
GHI behavior / .447***
(.082)
Regional fixed effects / Yes / Yes / Yes
Observations / 108 / 108 / 108
R squared / .874 / .793 / .926
Chi squared / 751.97 / 414.56 / 1347.88
Standard errors in parentheses. *** (**) [*] denote significance at p<.01 (p<.05) [p<.10].
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